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IRRIGATION 


IN    THE    UNITE*)  .STATES 


E*)  ^T 

w 


BY 

FREDERICK    HAYNES    NEWELL 

HYDRAULIC  ENGINEER  AND  CHIEF  OF  THE  DIVISION  OF  HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY;    MEMBER  OF  THE  AMERICAN 
SOCIETY  OK  CIVIL  ENGINEERS;    EXPERT  ON  IRRIGATION  FOR 
THE   ELEVENTH  AND  TWELFTH  UNITED  STATES  CEN- 
SUSES;   SECRETARY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  FORESTRY 
ASSOCIATION,  ETC. 


The  forest  and  water  problems  are  perhaps  the  most  vital 
internal  questions  of  the  United  States. 

ROOSEVELT 


NEW  YORK 

THOMAS  Y.    CROWELL  &   CO. 
PUBLISHERS 


AGRICULTURE 
GIFT 


COPYRIGHT,  1902, 
BY  THOMAS   Y.   CROWELL  &  CO. 


Published  February,  1902. 


f 

XL, 


Co 
JOHN   WESLEY   POWELL 

THE  PIONEER  ix  SCIENTIFIC  CONQUEST  OF  THE  ARID 

LANDS   OF  THE   NATIONAL   DOMAIN 


989 


There  is  no  one  question  now  before  the  people  of  the 
United  States  of  greater  importance  than  the  conservation 
of  the  water  supply  and  the  reclamation  of  the  arid  lands 
of  the  West,  and  their  settlement  by  men  who  will  actu- 
ally build  homes  and  create  communities. 

ETHAN  ALLEN  HITCHCOCK. 


Throughout  our  history  the  success  of  the  home-maker 
has   been   but  another  name  for  the   upbuilding  of  the 

nation. 

THEODORE  ROOSEVELT. 


Stability  of  national  character  goes  with  foothold  on 
the  soil. 

DAVID  STARR  JORDAN. 


PREFACE. 

IRRIGATION  as  it  is  related  to  the  utilization  of 
some  of  the  great  untouched  resources  of  the 
United  States  is  here  discussed,  and  especial  at- 
tention is  devoted  to  the  opportunities  for  making 
homes  upon  the  vast  extent  of  vacant  public  lands 
now  waste  and  desolate.  A  somewhat  elementary 
and  popular  description  of  irrigation  and  of  the 
devices  for  obtaining  and  distributing  water  is 
given,  including  details  of  interest  to  persons  who 
are  beginning  to  give  attention  to  the  subject. 
More  space  is  devoted  to  the  crude,  but  effective, 
home-made  contrivances  than  to  the  elaborate  or 
expensive  machinery  purchased  from  manufac- 
turers, for  the  success  of  irrigation  depends  most 
largely  upon  the  rough-and-ready  ingenuity  of  the 
first  settlers  in  a  new  country  in  adapting  their 
ways  to  the  environment. 

The  writer  has  been  continuously  engaged  for 
the  last  twelve  years  in  conducting  investigations 
of  the  extent  to  which  the  arid  regions  can  be 
reclaimed  by  irrigation,  ascertaining  the  cost  and 
capacity  of  reservoirs,  measuring  the  flow  of  rivers 
useful  for  power,  irrigation,  and  other  industrial 


vi  PREFACE. 

purposes,  and  mapping  the  artesian  or  under- 
ground waters.  The  attempt  is  here  made  to 
bring  together,  in  as  non-technical  a  manner  as 
possible,  the  results  of  this  study  and  experience. 

Acknowledgment  is  due  to  the  Director  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  Hon.  Charles  D. 
Walcott,  for  his  interest  in  the  matter  and  for  per- 
mission to  use  illustrations  and  data  from  the  files 
of  the  office,  and  to  numerous  friends  and  co- 
workers  in  the  Survey  who  have  generously  aided 
in  many  ways.  Especial  recognition  should  be 
given  to  Major  John  Wesley  Powell,  the  former 
Director,  to  whose  foresight  and  energy  is  due  the 
inauguration,  in  1888,  of  the  investigation  by  the 
Geological  Survey  of  the  extent  to  which  the  arid 
lands  can  be  reclaimed  by  irrigation. 

Thanks  for  material  and  assistance  are  given  to 
Mr.  Herbert  M.  Wilson,  the  author  of  the  "Manual 
of  Irrigation  Engineering,"  of  "Irrigation  in  India." 
etc.;  to  Mr.  Arthur  P.  Davis,  hydrographer  for  the 
Geological  Survey  and  also  for  the  Nicaragua  and 
Isthmian  Canal  Commissions ;  to  Mr.  J.  B.  Lippin- 
cott  and  to  Mr.  A.  L.  Fellows,  irrigation  experts 
respectively  for  California  and  Colorado;  to  Mr. 
George  H.  Maxwell,  of  The  National  Irrigation 
Association;  to  Professor  F.  H.  King,  author  of 
"Irrigation  and  Drainage";  to  Mr.  James  I). 
Schuyler,  author  of  "Reservoirs  for  Irrigation"; 
and  to  various  writers  on  water  supply  and  arte- 
conditions,  particularly  to  Professor  Israel  C. 


PREFACE.  vii 

Russell,  Mr.  N.  H.  Darton,  Professor  T.  C.  Cham- 
berlin,  Professor  Samuel  Fortier,  Professor  E.  C. 
Murphy,  Mr.  Frank  Leverett,  Professor  E.  H. 
Barbour,  Professor  Alfred  C.  Lane,  Professor  J.  E. 
Todd,  Professor  Thomas  U.  Taylor,  and  Mr.  George 
Otis  Smith,  all  being  connected  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree  with  the  investigation  of  the  water 
resources  of  the  United  States. 

Mention  should  also  be  made  of  various  books 
which  have  been  consulted :  "  The  Conquest  of 
Arid  America,"  by  William  E.  Smythe ;  "  Irriga- 
tion Farming,"  by  Lute  Wilcox ;  "The  Nation  as 
a  Landowner,"  by  J.  D.  Whelpley,  and  pamphlets 
and  reports  by  C.  E.  Grunsky,  Marsden  Manson, 
Elvvood  Mead,  Clarence  T.  Johnston,  E.  J.  Wick- 
son,  B.  C.  Buffum,  J.  C.  Ulrich,  R.  H.  Forbes, 
E.  B.  Voorhees,  and  others. 

The  literature  on  irrigation  is  now  so  extensive 
that  few  persons  can  claim  to  have  more  than  a 
general  knowledge  of  it.  Free  use  has  been  made 
of  all  available  sources  of  information,  but  no 
attempt  has  been  made  to  assign  credit  for  any 
particular  item  of  information  or  illustration. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

PREFACE         .  v 


CHAPTER   I. 

RECLAMATION  OF  THE  PUBLIC  LANDS i 

CHAPTER   II. 

THE  ARID  REGIONS 13 

Precipitation 16 

Forests 27 

Grazing  Lands 36 

Cultivated  Lands 49 

CHAPTER   III. 

SURFACE  WATERS 57 

Periodic  Fluctuation 62 

Seepage 72 

Importance  of  Stream  Measurements       ....  79 

Methods  of  Stream  Measurement 82 

Floats 86 

Current  Meters 89 

Weirs 97 

ix 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   IV. 

PAGE 
C«»N\T.YIN<;   AND    DIVIDING.    STREAM    WATERS  .  .  .       IO2 

Inversion  from  the  Stream 102 

Distribution  of  Flow 108 

Dams  and  Head  Gates 115 

Measuring  Devices  or  Modules         .         .         .         .         .120 

Flumes  and  Wooden  Pipes 1 34 

Tunnels  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .138 

Lining  of  Canals 139 

Erosion  and  Sedimentation  in  Canals       .         .         .         .141 

CHAPTER    V. 

RESERVOIRS 149 

Requirements  for  Water  Storage      .                  ...  150 
Keeping  Reservoirs  Clean        .         .         .         .         .         .156 

Masonry  Dams         .         . 159 

Rock-filled  Dams 162 

Earth  Dams 166 

Hydraulic  Dams 170 

Stored  Waters 173 

CHAPTER  VI. 

METHODS  OF  IRRIGATION 179 

Flooding  in  Checks 185 

Watering  by  Furrows 193 

Wild  Flooding 199 

Orchards  and  Vineyards 202 

Subirrigation 207 

Amount  of  Water  applied         .                                    .         .  212 

Arrangement  of  Irrigated  Farm        .                  ...  220 


CONTENTS.  xi 
CHAPTER  VII. 

PAGE 

UNDERGROUND  WATERS      t 225 

Return  Waters 226 

Underflow 229 

Ordinary  Wells         .                           241 

Artesian  Wells 246 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

PUMPING  WATER 254 

Pumping  by  Hand  or  Animal  Power         .         .         .         .255 

Use  of  Water-wheels        ....                  .  258 

Windmills 265 

Steam  and  Gasolene 270 

CHAPTER   IX. 

ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  IRRIGATION       ,        .  272 

Sewage  Irrigation    ........  275 

Alkali 281 

CHAPTER  X. 

IRRIGATION  LAW 286 

CHAPTER  XI. 

STATES  AND  TERRITORIES  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS        .        .  299 

Arizona 304 

California 312 

Colorado 329 

Idaho 333 


xii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Montana 338 

Nevada 341 

New  Mexico 346 

Oregon 350 

Utah 353 

Washington 358 

Wyoming 361 

CHAPTER  XII. 

STATES  OF  THE  SEMIARID  REGION 364 

Fluctuations  in  Water  Supply 364 

Artesian  and  Deep  Wells 373 

•  North  Dakota  and  South  Dakota 376 

Nebraska          .                 377 

Kansas 379 

Oklahoma  and  Texas 380 

CHAFFER   XIII. 

HI-MID  RKC;I«»N.S    ....                 ....  383 

CHAPTER   XIV. 

CONCLUSION 393 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PLATES. 

FACING   PAGE 

I.     The  isolated  home  on  the  wind-swept  unirrigated 

plain      .........         2 

II.     The  home  made  possible  by  irrigation       ...         6 

III.  Results  of  attempts  to  make  homes  on  the  public 

lands  without  first  providing  methods  of  irrigation  14 

IV.  Results  attained  by  irrigation 22 

V.     A,  Forests  partly  destroyed.     B,  Cultivated  fields  re- 
ceiving water  from  the  partly  forested  mountains  .  30 

VI.     Ay  Young  forest  growth  succeeding  a  fire.     B,  Sheep 

grazing  in  the  forests 44 

VII.     Cattle  on  the  open  range 56 

VIII.     A  flood  in  Salt  River,  Arizona 62 

IX.     A,  Seepage  water  appearing  on  land  formerly  dry 
near  Rincon,  California.     B,  Dredge  cutting  canal 

to  receive  seepage  water 76 

X.     A,    Electric   current    meter,    conducting   cord,    and 
battery.      B,    Method    of   using   electric    current 

meter  from  suspended  car 90 

XI.     A,  Supports  for  suspended  car.     B,  Method  of  using 

meter  from  boat 94 

XII.     A,  Weir  on  Genesee  River,  New  York.     B,  Weir 

on  Cottonwood  Creek,  Utah  ....       98 

XIII.  A,  Digging  a  ditch  from  a  river.     B,  The  finished 

ditch 106 

XIV.  Dredge   cutting   large    canal  of  Central   Irrigation 

District,  California no 

XV.     A,  Head  gates  of  canal.     B,  Timber  regulator          .  114 
XVI.     A,  Regulating   or  measuring  device  near  head  of 

canal.     B,  Distribution  box  on  farmer's  lateral      .  120 


XIV 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FACING   PACK 

XVII.     A,  Flume  on  rocky  hillside.     B,  Flume  across 

earth  in  a  sidehill  cut 130 

XVIII.     Raising  the  trestles  for  a  large  flume            .         .132 
XIX.     Semicircular  wooden  flume          ....     134 
XX.     A,  Pipe  under  i6ofoot  head,  Santa  Ana  Canal, 
California.     By  Old  flume  and  redwood  pipe 
replacing  it,  Redlands  Canal,  California  .         .136 
X X  I.     A,  Tunnel  on  Turlock  Canal,  California.    By  Tun- 
nel in  earth  on  Crocker-Huffman  Canal,  Cali- 
fornia        

XXII.  A,  Semicircular  flume  in  Santa  Ana  Canal,  Cali- 
fornia. By  Cement  lining  of  Santa  Ana  Canal, 
California 

XXIII.  A,  Drop  in  an  Arizona  canal.     B,  Check  weir 

and  drop  ....... 

XXIV.  Sweetwater  Dam  near  San  Diego,  California 
XXV.     A,  Lagrange  Dam,  nearly  completed.     Bt  La- 
grange  Dam  with  flood  passing  over  crest  and 
spillways 

XXVI.  A,  Dam  at  Austin,  Texas,  looking  toward  power 
house.  Bt  Portions  of  Austin  Dam  immedi- 
ately after  failure 162 

XXVII.  Ay  Otay  Dam,  California,  showing  method  of 
protecting  steel  plates.  B,  Construction  of 
timber  dam  at  Blue  Lakes,  California  .  .166 
XXVIII.  A,  Building  clam  by  hydraulic  process  at  Santa 
Fe,  New  Mexico,  showing  hydraulic  giant  in 
use.  Bt  Building  dam  by  hydraulic  process  at 
Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico,  showing  outlet  pipe  .  1 70 

XXIX.     Excavating    deep    cut    for    canal   by    hydraulic 

process 172 

XXX.  Skyline  Canal  diverting  water  across  the  moun- 
tains   176 

XXXI.  Ay  Field  prepared  in  rectangular  checks.  B,  Ir- 
rigation by  checks  in  San  Joaquin  Valley, 
California  ....  188 


138 

142 

146 
'54 

158 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


xv 


FACING   PAGE 

XXXII.     A,  Canvas  dam  in  temporary  ditch.     B,  Irrigat- 
ing a  young  alfalfa  field 194 

XXXIII.  Furrow  irrigation  of  grove 198 

XXXIV.  A,  Furrow  irrigation  of  vines.     B,  Furrow  irri- 

gation of  orchard 

XXXV.     Cement-lined  distributing  ditch  .... 

XXXVI.     Cultivation  after  irrigation  ..... 

XXXVII.     A,  Weir  measurements  of  Los  Angeles  River  in 

San  Fernando  Valley,  California.     J?,  Results 

of  irrigation  from  rivers  of  Southern  California 

XXXVIII.     A,  Artesian  well  in  Arizona.     B,  Artesian  well 

in  Kansas 

XXXIX.     Outfit  for  drilling  deep  artesian  wells  . 

XL.     Well  at  Woonsocket,  South  Dakota,  throwing  a 
three-inch  stream  to  a  height  of  ninety-seven 

feet 

XLI.     Current  wheels  lifting  water         .... 
XLII.     A,    Jumbo    type    of    home-made    windmills. 

B,  Battle-axe  type  of  home-made  windmills 
XLIII.     Windmill  pumping  into  sod-lined  reservoir 

XLIV.     The  desert  reclaimed 

XLV.     Sewage  irrigation  at  Plainfield,  New  Jersey 
XLVI.     A,     Sewage     irrigation     at     Phoenix,     Arizona. 

£,  Sewage  irrigation  in  England 
XLVII.     Irrigated  vineyard  near  Phoenix,  Arizona    . 

XLVIII.     Drying  apricots .310 

XLIX.     A,  Irrigation  of  vineyard  in  San  Joaquin  Valley, 
California.      B,  Irrigation  of  orchard  in   San 
Joaquin  Valley,  California         .         .         .         .320 

L.     Redwood  stave  pipe,  fifty-two  inches  in  diameter, 
crossing  Warmsprings  Canyon,  near  Redlands, 
California         ....... 

LI.     Irrigating  a  wheat  field  in  Colorado    . 
LII.     A,  Twin  Falls,  Snake  River,  Idaho.      B,  Con- 
structing a  canal  by  means  of  a  grader     . 
LIII.     Wooden  pipe  line  on  Phyllis  Canal,  Idaho 
LIV.     Canyon  of  Snake  River  above  Lewiston,  Idaho  . 


202 
206 
216 


236 

246 

248 


252 
260 

266 
270 

274 
278 

282 
3°4 


326 
332 

334 
336 

338 


xvi  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FACING   PAGB 

LV.  Tunnel  of  Bear  River  Canal,  Utah  .  .  -354 
LVI.  Wheat-fields  of  Washington  .  .  .  .  358 
I. VI  I.  ./,  Sunnyside  Canal,  Washington.  B,  Fruit 

orchard,  Yakima  Valley,  Washington        .         .     362 
LVI  1 1.     A,  Irrigation  in  South   Dakota  by  use  of  water 
from  an  artesian  well.    B,  Stock-watering  plant 

on  upland 37° 

I.IX.     ./,  Settler  trying  to  cultivate  without  irrigation. 

B,  Water  for  irrigation  provided  by  windmill  .     374 
LX.     -/,  Looking  down  North  Flatte  River  from  the 
Nebraska-Wyoming  line.      B,  Head    gates  of 
Farmers  and   Merchants   Irrigation   Company 
on  I'latte  River,  near  Co/ad,  Nebraska     .          .      378 
l.XI.     I  )utch  windmill  at  Lawrence,  Kansas  .'         .      ;S-? 

LXIl.     ./,  Clean  sweep  of  the  prairie  lire.      /.'.  The  car- 
pet of  grass  on  the  high  plains          .         .         .     386 

FIGURES, 

PAGR 

1.  Map  of  vacant  public  lands 5 

2.  Map  of  humid,  semiarid,  and  arid  regions  of  the  United 

States 14 

3.  Map  of  humid  and  arid  regions  of  the  world    .         .  15 

4.  Mean  monthly  precipitation  at  twelve  localities  in  western 

United  States 18 

5.  Types  of  monthly  distribution  of  precipitation  ...       20 
('.     \nnualprecipitationatthreepointsinaridregions  .        22 

7.  Map  of  mean  annual  rainfall 24 

8.  Map  of  mean  annual  run-off 25 

9.  Forests  and  woodlands  of  the  West  ....       32 

10.  Relative  position  of  forest  and  Indian  reservations  .         .  "34 

11.  Approximate  location  and  extent  of  the  open  range           .  39 

1 2.  Map  of  dry  farming 50 

13.  Comparison  of  cultivable  and  cultivated  areas  in  belt  of 

states 52 

14.  Map  of  irrigated  nnd  irrigable  lands          ....        54 

15.  Larger  river  systems  of  the  United  States         ...       60 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  xvii 


1  6.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  Rio  Grande  at  Embudo, 

New  Mexico,  for  1896,  1897,  an<^  *&98  ...  65 

17.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  Susquehanna  River  at 

Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania,  for  1896,  1897,  and  1898  .  68 

1  8.    Double  or  submerged  floats      ......       88 

19.  Method  of  measuring  river  from  car  suspended  from  a 

steel  cable    .........       94 

20.  Section  of  flume,  illustrating  methods  of  measurement      .       96 

21.  Ordinary  weir  in  a  small  stream        .....       99 

22.  Diagram  showing  method  of  diverting  a  canal  from  a 

river     ..........     104 

23.  Levelling  device  for  laying  out  ditches     .         .         .         .106 

24.  Map  of  ditches  along  a  stream          .....     113 

25.  Plan  of  diversion  works  in  river        .....     116 

26.  Brush  dams  of  canals  heading  near  each  other          .         .     117 

27.  Plan  of  dam  and  regulator        ......     118 

28.  Details  of  small  head  gate         ......     119 

29.  Plan  of  device  for  dividing  water     .....     121 

30.  Flume  for  measuring  miner's  inches          .         .         .         .125 

31.  Foote  measuring  box        .......     127 

32.  Methods  of  measuring  miner's  inch  in  ditch     .         .         .128 

33.  Rectangular  weir      ........     131 

34.  Trapezoidal  or  Cippoletti  weir  .         .          .         .         .132 

35.  Trapezoidal  weir  with  self-recording  device      .         .         .     133 

36.  Vertical  section  of  trestle  and  flume          .         .         .         .135 

37.  Siphon  passage  for  canal          .....         .     137 

38.  Section  of  cement-lined  ditch  with  stop  gate    .         .         .     140 

39.  Cross-section  of  canal  partly  filled  with  sediment      .         .     144 

40.  Map  of  a  reservoir    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .153 

41.  Section  of  masonry  dam  at  La  Grange,  California    .         .     160 

42.  Plan  of  dam  at  La  Grange,  California       ....     161 

43.  Portion  of  earth  reservoir  showing  outlet          .         .         .168 

44.  Portion  of  earth  reservoir  showing  inlet    .         .         .         .169 

45.  Section  of  reservoir  bank  showing  outlet  .         .         .169 

46.  Section  of  small  distributing  ditch    .         .         .         .         .     183 

47.  Section  of  small  raised  ditch     ......     183 

48.  Sections  and  elevation  of  small  flumes      .         .         .         .184 


xviii  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

49.  Box  for  taking  water  from  main  ditch       .         .         .         .184 

50.  Details  of  construction  of  box  for  distributing  \\ater          .  186 

51.  Portion  of  field,  divided  by  rectangular  levees  .         .         .  187 

52.  Application  of  water  by  the  block  system          .         .         .188 

53.  Flooding  in  rectangular  checks 190 

54.  Plan  of  irrigated  garden  divided  into  compartments  or 

checks 191 

55.  Checks  on  sloping  land 193 

56.  Application  of  water  by  furrows 195 

57.  Water  turned  from  furrow  by  a  canvas  dam      .         .         .196 

58.  Canvas  dam 197 

59.  Metal  tappoons 198 

60.  Wooden  tappoon  provided  with  outlets    .         .         ...  198 

61.  Metal  tappoon  with  measuring  gate          .         .         .         .198 

62.  Plan  of  wild  flooding 200 

63.  Plan  of  distributing  water  on  rolling  lands        .         .         .  201 

64.  Box  for  distributing  water  in  an  orchard  ....  202 

65.  Outlet  from  side  of  small  flume 203 

66.  Orchard  irrigation  by  pools 204 

67.  Irrigation  on  slope  with  stepped  flume     ....  205 

68.  Pipes  and  hydrant  for  distributing  water  in  an  orchard     .  208 

69.  Plan  of  subirrigating  system 209 

70.  Section  of  small  galvanized  sheet-iron  pipe       .         .         .210 
71     Plan  of  an  irrigated  farm 221 

72.  Rise  of  ground  water  following  irrigation          .         .         .  223 

73.  Diagram  illustrating  inflow  and  outflow  of  Ogden  Valley, 

Utah 228 

74.  Dam  across  a  rocky  canyon,  cutting  off  the  underflow      .  234 

75.  Ordinary  well  curbing  and  windlass          .         .         .         .  244 

76.  Diagram  illustrating  evils  of  insufficient  casing          .         .  245 

77.  Section  of  one  side  of  an  artesian  basin    ....  247 

78.  Section  illustrating  the  thinning  out  of  a  porous  water- 

bearing bed 248 

79.  Geologic  section  from  the  Black  Hills  east  across  South 

Dakota  (western  half) 250 

80.  Geologic  section  from  the  Black  Hills  east  across  South 

Dakota  (eastern  half) 251 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  xix 

PAGE 

81.  The  doon,  or  tilting  trough 254 

82.  Series  of  shadoofs  as  used  in  Egypt           ....  255 

83.  A  mot,  operated  by  oxen 256 

84.  Horse-power  for  lifting  water  .         ,         .         .         .         .257 

85.  Current  wheel  lifting  water 258 

86.  Impulse  water-wheel 260 

87.  Windmills  pumping  into  earth  reservoir    ....  268 

88.  Channels  and  gates  for  sewage  irrigation           .         .         .  280 

89.  United  States  compared  with  foreign  countries         .         .  301 

90.  Western  United  States  compared  with  foreign  countries  .  303 

91.  California  compared  with  the  Atlantic  States  lying  in  the 

same  latitude 314 

92.  California  compared  with  Old  World  countries  lying  in 

the  same  latitude 315 

93.  Canal  system  from  Kern  River,  California         .         .         .  320 

94.  Ideal  section  of  Columbia  River  lava        ....  361 


IRRIGATION. 

CHAPTER   I. 

RECLAMATION   OF   THE  PUBLIC   LANDS. 

HOME-MAKING  is  the  aim  of  this  book ;  the  recla- 
mation of  places  now  waste  and  desolate  and  the 
creation  there  of  fruitful  farms,  each  tilled  by  its 
owner,  is  its  object.  The  attainment  of  this  end 
is  sought  by  directing  attention  to  the  resources 
of  our  great  unutilized  domain,  in  the  hope  that, 
through  a  more  complete  knowledge  of  these  and 
the  methods  of  their  utilization,  vigorous  and  wise 
action  may  supersede  the  present  lax  and  improvi- 
dent policy. 

One-third  of  the  whole  United  States,  exclusive 
of  Alaska  and  outlying  possessions,  consists  of 
vacant  public  land.  One  of  the  greatest  economic 
questions  before  our  people  is  that  relating  to  the 
utilization  of  this  vast  area,  much  of  which  has  a 
rich  soil  and  under  good  management  is  capable  of 
sustaining  a  large  population  ;  while,  if  neglected, 
there  will  continue  to  be  only  widely  separated 
ranches  and  nomadic  herdsmen.  As  the  control 
of  the  vacant  public  lands  is  now  tending,  these 
areas  are  not  being  made  available  for  the  crea- 
tion of  the  largest  number  of  homes. 


2  IRRIGATION. 

This  matter  is  one  not  merely  of  local  interest 
to  the  West,  but  is  of  even  greater  concern  to  the 
East,  and  to  all  who  are  dependent  upon  the  manu- 
facturing and  transporting  interests,  as  well  as  to 
the  farmers  who  supply  all  of  these  workers  with 
food.  The  widening  of  settlement  in  the  West 
means  a  rapidly  increasing  market  for  goods  manu- 
factured in  the  East  and  transported  to  the  West. 
With  more  people  engaged  in  making  the  finished 
articles  and  carrying  them  to  the  West,  there  comes 
a  larger  and  larger  demand  for  agricultural  prod- 
ucts, especially  those  raised  near  the  manufactur- 
ing centres.  In  short,  the  prosperity  of  the  whole 
country  follows  the  upbuilding  of  any  considerable 
portion. 

The  vacant  public  lands  are  for  the  most  part 
desert-like  in  character,  and  their  utilization  can 
come  about  only  through  irrigation,  or  the  arti- 
ficial application  of  water  to  the  soil,  to  supplement 
the  scanty  rainfall  or  to  supply  its  absence.  In 
a  wider  sense,  irrigation  is  taken  to  include  the 
whole  question  of  conservation  and  utilization  of 
water  in  the  development  of  the  arid  regions,  and 
to  embrace  a  discussion  of  features  of  social  and 
political  importance  arising  from  the  reclamation 
of  the  arid  public  domain.  In  the  first  instance, 
irrigation  is  of  greatest  importance  to  the  farmer 
who  is  attempting  to  raise  crops  in  a  country  of 
deficient  rainfall.  He  wishes  to  produce  the  most 
profitable  fruits  or  grains  with  the  least  expendi- 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  I. 


RECLAMATION  OF  THE   PUBLIC  LANDS.        3 

ture  of  time  and  energy.  For  him  a  discussion  of 
irrigation  means  a  description  of  the  methods  of 
applying  water,  the  amount  to  be  given  to  various 
soils  and  to  different  crops,  and  the  results  obtained 
by  applying  or  withholding  water  at  various  periods 
of  plant  life.  In  the  second  instance,  irrigation  is 
of  concern  to  all  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
since  they  are  the  great  landowners,  and  as  such 
are  interested  to  see  that  their  lands  are  put  to  the 
best  uses ;  it  is  their  duty,  as  citizens,  to  guard 
the  public  lands,  the  heritage  of  their  children, 
and  prevent  their  falling  into  the  hands  of  persons 
who  will  treat  them  as  speculative  commodities. 

It  is  from  both  these  standpoints  that  the  subject 
is  here  discussed.  It  is  unquestionably  a  duty  of 
the  highest  citizenship  to  enable  a  hundred  homes 
of  independent  farmers  to  exist,  rather  than  one 
or  two  great  stock  ranches,  controlled  by  non- 
residents, furnishing  employment  only  to  nomadic 
herders.  These  alternatives  and  their  results  must 
be  borne  in  mind  to  appreciate  properly  the  effect 
of  either  neglect  or  forethought  upon  the  future  of 
the  country. 

The  mineral  or  substance  which  has  the  greatest 
direct  influence  upon  man,  his  health  and  indus- 
tries, is  water.  Its  quality,  and  especially  its 
quantity,  directly  affect  his  occupations.  If  there 
is  too  much,  the  ground  is  marshy,  malarial,  and 
unfit  for  cultivation  ;  if  too  little,  the  plants  valuable 
for  food  do  not  thrive.  There  is  a  narrow  range 


4  IRRIGATION. 

between  excess  and  deficiency,  and  upon  the  nice 
adjustment  of  the  balance  between  moisture  and 
drought  depends  the  existence  of  prosperous  com- 
munities. 

Taking  the  world  as  a  whole,  the  greater  part  of 
the  earth's  surface  is  not  utilized,  even  though  the 
climatic  conditions  as  regards  heat  and  cold  are 
favorable  for  occupation.  The  outer  covering  of 
disintegrated  rock  and  vegetal  mould  known  as 
the  soil  is  suitable  for  the  support  of  useful  plants, 
except  in  the  one  respect  —  that  of  moisture.  Most 
plants  require  a  certain  continuous  supply  of  water, 
neither  too  much  nor  too  little.  In  humid  cli- 
mates where  the  annual  rainfall  is  fifty  inches  or 
over,  there  are  enormous  areas  so  thoroughly 
saturated  with  water  that  farm  crops  are  not  pos- 
sible. The  creation  of  homes  here  is  dependent 
upon  ability  to  remove  by  drainage  the  excess  of 
water.  In  contrast  to  this  there  are  in  the  arid 
region  still  greater  expanses  of  good  soil  where 
the  occasional  rains  are  not  sufficient  to  bring  food 
plants  to  maturity. 

The  location  of  the  vacant  public  land  is  shown 
on  the  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  i),  which  gives 
the  outline  of  the  United  States  from  the  9/th 
meridian  westerly  to  the  Pacific  coast.  Texas  is 
excluded,  as  this  state,  entering  the  Union  from 
the  condition  of  an  independent  republic,  retained 
control  of  its  land.  The  black  areas  on  the  small 
map  indicate  the  lands  which  have  passed  out  of 


VACANT   PUBLIC    LAND. 


the  possession  of  the  general  government.  In  the 
eastern  part  it  is  seen  that  practically  all  of  the 
land  has  been  disposed  of.  White  spots  appearing 
in  the  black  areas  of  western  Kansas  and  Nebraska 


J  Forest  reservations 


=>«.iro»d  aod wagon  grants  ^^^Unds  disposed  of  HHHI"*  

FIG.  i.  —  Map  of  vacant  public  land. 

indicate  that  there  are  still  a  few  tracts  left  un- 
touched. Near  its  centre  the  greater  part  of  the 
map  is  white,  indicating  that  nearly  all  of  the  land 
is  under  the  control  of  Congress,  the  black  spots 


6  IRRIGATION. 

iii  this  area  showing,  usually  in  exaggerated  form, 
the  relative  position  of  lands  taken  by  farmers  or 
stock  men.  Near  the  Pacific  coast  the  area  dis- 
posed of  again  increases,  including  most  of  the 
valleys.  The  area  of  the  land  surface  of  each 
state  and  territory  and  the  amount  vacant  in  each, 
also  the  extent  of  land  held  in  forest,  Indian, 
military,  and  other  reservations  are  shown  in  the 
following  table. 

VACANT     AND     RESERVED    AREAS     IN      I  HI      \\K>I'KKN     PUBLIC 
LAND   STATES. 


STATH  OR  TERRITORY. 

Total  Area. 

V.u  -ant. 

Reserved. 

. 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Per 
cent. 

Acres. 

Arizona  .... 
California  .... 
Colorado  .... 
Idaho  

72,268,800 
99,827,200 
66,332,800 

C?  ,Q4  C  ,6OO 

48,771,000 
42,049,000 

39,  1  1  6,000 

42,475,000 

67-5 
42.. 
59-o 
78.7 

18,285,000 
16,064,000 
5,694,000 
I,747,OOO 

Kansas  
Montana  .... 

Nebraska  .... 
Nevada 

52,288,000 
92,998,400 
49,177,600 

7O  233  6oO 

1,085,000 
65,803,000 
9,927,000 

61,322  ooo 

'  ' 

2.1 
70.8 
20.  2 

87.1 

988,000 
12,348,000 
70,000 
c.q83  OOO 

New  Mexico  .  .  . 
North  Dakota  .  . 
Oklahoma  .... 
Oregon  ... 

78,374,400 
44,924,800 
24,851,200 

60.  ?  1  8.4.00 

55,589,000 
16,956,000 
4,654,000 

3  3,  784,000 

70.9 

37-7 
18.7 
«.8 

6,385,000 
^3-70,000 

;.i5S,o<M> 
;  ;<jo.ooe 

South  Dakota  .  . 
Utah  . 

49,184,000 

52,601  600 

11,869,000 
4.2  t;i6  ooo 

24.1 
808 

'  '3,ooo 
5  488000 

Washington  .  .  . 
Wyoming  .... 

42,803,200 
62,448,000 

11,913,000 
47,657,000 

27.8 

7»o 

10,765,000 

,5,000 

Total    .     .     . 

972,777,600 

535,486^)00 

55-' 

120,643,000 

IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  II. 


RAILROAD    LAND   GRANTS.  7 

Stretching  across  the  map  are  a  number  of  bands 
made  up  of  lines  crossing  one  another.  These  indi- 
cate the  size  and  position  of  the  great  railroad  land 
grants,  within  which  every  alternate  section  has 
been  given  as  bonus  for  the  construction  of  trans- 
continental lines  of  communication.  These  are, 
from  north  to  south :  the  Northern  Pacific,  the 
Union  Pacific  to  Ogden,  the  Central  Pacific  from 
there  to  California,  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  and 
the  Southern  Pacific.  In  addition  to  these  vast 
grants  of  land  are  seen  the  narrower  wagon-road 
grants  in  the  state  of  Oregon.  Two  classes  of 
reservations  are  indicated  on  the  map,  namely, 
the  lands  held  for  Indians,  and  those  set  aside  for 
the  preservation  of  the  forests.  The  locations  of 
these  are  shown  on  the  map,  Fig.  10,  p.  34. 
The  fact  which  it  is  desired  to  bring  out  at  this 
time  is  the  enormous  extent  of  the  public  land  and 
the  way  in  which  it  is  cut  up  by  grants,  reserva- 
tions, and  private  holdings. 

The  public  lands  are  open  to  entry  and  settle- 
ment under  what  is  known  as  the  Homestead  Law, 
the  intent  of  which  is  to  provide  homes  especially 
for  that  part  of  the  population  who  are  capable  of 
self-support,  and  who,  having  little  or  no  capital 
beyond  their  labor,  are  eager  to  make  for  them- 
selves homes  and  to  become  landowning  citizens. 
It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  land  laws  to  dispose  of 
the  lands  as  rapidly  as  possible,  but  on  the  contrary 
to  serve  as  an  outlet  for  the  energy  and  labor  of 


8  IRRIGATION. 

the  nation.  This  object  is  peculiarly  important  at 
times  of  industrial  depression  when  men  seek  work 
in  vain,  and  gladly  avail  themselves  of  the  oppor- 
tunities which  in  the  past  have  been  offered  on  the 
public  domain.  The  stability  of  the  government 
has  been  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  there  has 
always  been  this  outlet  for  superfluous  labor,  and 
opportunities  for  the  making  of  homes. 

Within  the  last  decade,  however,  a  great  change 
has  gradually  come  about,  and  its  effects  are  only 
now  being  noticed.  The  original  intent  of  the  land 
laws  is  not  being  accomplished  as  far  as  home- 
steading  is  concerned,  because  the  remaining  public 
lands,  although  of  enormous  extent  as  previously 
stated,  are  for  the  most  part  within  the  arid  region, 
and  crops  cannot  be  produced  until  a  water  supply 
has  been  obtained  sufficient  to  moisten  the  soil 
during  the  growing  time.  There  is  a  considerable 
amount  of  water  which  can  thus  be  employed,  but 
the  expense  of  utilizing  it  is  too  great  for  the 
settler.  The  localities  where  water  can  easily  be 
diverted  to  the  thirsty  soil  have  already  been  taken 
up  by  the  pioneers.  The  larger  works  necessary 
to  take  water  to  less  accessible  localities  require 
the  investment  of  considerable  sums  of  money,  far 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  ordinary  settler. 

In  the  old  days  it  was  possible  for  a  man  with  a 
team  and  the  ordinary  farm  tools  to  construct 
ditches  leading  from  the  creeks  flowing  out  of  the 
mountains,  and  to  provide  channels  by  which  his 


RECTANGULAR   SURVEYS.  9 

farm  could  be  irrigated.  In  this  way  he  was  able 
to  produce  crops  on  the  low  lands  along  the  rivers, 
and  to  gradually  extend  the  system  of  water  supply 
even  to  the  adjacent  terraces  or  bench  lands.  But 
the  later  comers  find  that  the  small  streams  are 
already  fringed  with  farms,  and  the  land  lying  be- 
yond these,  although  sometimes  better  in  quality, 
cannot  be  reached  without  incurring  great  expense. 

It  is  for  the  interest  of  the  public  at  large  and 
the  nation  to  have  all  of  these  good  agricultural 
lands  utilized ;  and  the  question  arises,  Who  is  to 
make  it  possible  for  the  settler  to  occupy  them  ? 
This  is  a  question  which,  if  satisfactorily  answered, 
must  be  by  the  lawmakers  of  the  nation,  and  for 
this  purpose  they,  as  well  as  the  thinking  public, 
should  be  in  possession  of  the  facts. 

The  laws  governing  the  disposal  of  public  lands 
have  been  drawn  almost  wholly  with  reference  to 
the  broad  prairies  and  plains  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  where  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  for  the 
maturing  of  crops.  Under  the  prevailing  system 
of  dividing  the  land,  surveys  are  made  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  cut  it  into  blocks  as  nearly  square  as 
possible,  lines  being  run  north  and  south,  east  and 
west,  at  intervals  of  six  miles,  enclosing  areas  of 
approximately  thirty-six  square  miles,  known  as 
townships.  Each  side  of  the  township  is  divided 
into  miles,  and  from  these  points  are  run  cross  lines 
which  subdivide  the  land  into  thirty-six  sections, 
each  containing  one  square  mile,  or  640  acres. 


10  IRRIGATION. 

These  again  are  cut  into  quarter-sections,  consist- 
ing of  160  acres,  and  finally  into  fourths  of  a 
quarter-section,  consisting  of  40  acres  and  com- 
monly known  as  forties.  The  sections  are  num- 
bered consecutively,  beginning  at  the  northeast 
corner  of  the  township,  and-  continuing  westerly, 
then  easterly,  and  back  and  forth,  ending  in  Sec- 
tion thirty-six  in  the  southeast  corner. 

These  lines  of  rectangular  survey  are  run 
wholly  without  reference  to  natural  features,  such 
as  smaller  streams,  hills,  and  valleys.  In  the  well- 
watered,  comparatively  level  country,  such  as  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys  and  the  Great  Plains, 
this  disregard  of  the  natural  features  is  unimportant 
when  compared  with  the  desirability  of  having 
simple  and  easily  defined  boundaries.  Here,  where 
the  rainfall  is  sufficient  for  the  production  of  crops, 
practically  every  quarter-section  of  the  flat  or  gently 
rolling  country  is  as  good  as  the  next,  there  being 
small  difference  of  soil  or  of  surface  slopes.  Each 
farmer  taking  up  a  quarter-section  is  independent  as 
regards  his  method  of  cultivation,  and  can  conduct 
his  operations  in  such  manner  as  his  experience  may 
dictate.  In  the  vast  arid  regions,  however,  where 
lie  the  greater  part  of  the  remaining  public  lands, 
the  value  of  the  farm  depends  almost  wholly  upon 
the  question  of  water  supply.  The  accessibility 
and  permanence  of  this  far  outweigh  all  other 
considerations.  The  interests  of  each  farmer  are 
closely  allied  with  those  of  his  neighbor,  as  all  must 


WATER   MONOPOLY.  II 

depend  upon  streams  or  sources  of  supply  used 
in  common.  Here  independence  must  give  way 
to  cooperation  ;  and  while  adjoining  lands  may  be 
equally  good  as  regards  soil,  their  value  may  be  far 
different,  because  water  can  be  taken  to  one  tract 
while  for  the  other  none  can  be  had.  The  man 
who  controls  the  water  virtually  owns  everything 
of  value.  This  fact  has  not  been  sufficiently  rec- 
ognized in  laws  governing  the  disposal  of  the  pub- 
lic lands,  and  in  many  localities  water  monopoly 
has  resulted  from  the  neglect  of  needed  safeguards. 
Title  to  a  few  hundred  acres  along  watercourses  has 
virtually  given  possession  to  thousands  of  acres  of 
other  land,  preventing  settlers  from  acquiring  these 
because  they  are  shut  off  from  access  to  the  springs 
or  streams.  In  short,  the  creation  of  hundreds  of 
homes  has  been  prevented  by  neglecting  to  protect 
the  right  to  the  use  of  the  scanty  water  supply. 

Without  going  into  details,  it  is  sufficient  to  state 
that  the  rectangular  system  of  division  of  the  public 
lands,  while  one  of  the  most  beneficial  measures 
leading  to  the  settlement  of  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi valleys,  has  been  found  to  be  detrimental  to 
the  best  growth  of  the  western  two-fifths  of  the 
United  States.  This  has  arisen  from  lack  of  knowl- 
edge by  the  public,  the  owners  of  the  land,  as  to 
the  part  which  irrigation  plays  in  the  utilization  of 
the  resources  of  the  West.  Attention  has  been 
concentrated  upon  land  titles,  and  great  care  has 
been  exercised  in  the  survey  and  marking  of  boun- 


12  IRRIGATION. 

daries  and  in  recording  the  patents  or  deeds  ;  while 
the  water,  which  alone  gives  value,  has  hardly 
been  considered,  and  the  rights  to  its  use  have 
often  been  left  to  be  adjusted  largely  by  local  or 
temporary  expedients.  It  would  have  been  far 
better,  if  one  or  the  other  of  these  items  must  have 
been  neglected,  to  have  given  first  thought  to  the 
water  and  secondary  consideration  to  the  land,  sub- 
dividing this  with  reference  more  to  the  possibility 
of  obtaining  water  than  for  convenience  of  survey. 
To  remedy  this  and  bring  about  such  a  condition 
that  the  remaining  public  lands  may  furnish  the 
greatest  possible  number  of  homes,  is  an  object 
worthy  the  sustained  effort  of  enlightened  and  pa- 
triotic citizens.  To  assemble  the  facts  upon  which 
intelligent  action  can  be  based  is  a  task  to  which 
the  best  efforts  of  aspiring  students  or  investiga- 
tors may  be  directed.  These  facts  pertain  first  of 
all  to  the  water  supply  and  its  limitations,  since,  in 
a  country  where  arid  land  is  in  excess,  the  agricul- 
tural area  is  limited  by  the  available  water. 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE  ARID  REGIONS. 

THE  arid  regions  of  the  United  States  include 
about  two-fifths  of  its  entire  area,  and  extend  from 
about  the  middle  of  the  continent  west  nearly  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  There  are  no  sharply  marked 
lines  or  divisions  between  the  arid  and  humid  areas, 
but  intermediate,  especially  near  the  centre  of  the 
United  States,  is  a  broad  belt  neither  distinctly 
arid  nor  humid,  which  has  sometimes  been  called 
the  subhumid,  or  again  the  semiarid,  region.  This 
belt  extends  over  South  and  North  Dakota,  west- 
ern Nebraska,  and  western  Kansas  into  Oklahoma 
and  the  "  pan  handle  "  of  Texas.  In  some  years 
of  excessive  moisture  the  subhumid  region  creeps 
up  toward  the  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
while,  during  the  dry  years,  the  greater  part  of  the 
plains  region  west  of  the  Missouri  becomes  semi- 
arid. 

In  a  general  way  arid  regions  are  taken  as  in- 
cluding those  of  twenty  or  less  inches  of  aver- 
age annual  rainfall ;  thus,  the  arid  regions  of 
the  United  States  are  but  a  portion  of  those  of 

13 


IRRIGATION. 


North  America,  which  embraces  a  considerable  part 
of  Mexico  on  the  south  and  of  Canada  on  the 
north.  The  relative  extent  of  these  regions  of 
humidity  and  of  aridity  can  best  be  shown  by  a 
small  diagram  (Fig.  2). 

Modern    civilization    has   developed    largely   in 
humid  regions,  and  we  have  thus  come  to  regard 


V  -/*  -'-   '<    *    ' 

m 


FIG.  2.  —  Map  of  humid,  semiarid,  and  arid  regions  of  the  United  States. 

aridity  as  something  exceptional ;  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  however,  a  great  part  of  the  countries  of  the 
Old  World  have  less  than  twenty  inches  of  annual 
rainfall,  and  according  to  our  ideas  must  be  con- 
sidered as  arid.  The  civilization  of  former  times 
grew  up  in  these  arid  regions,  and  we  cannot  fully 
appreciate  the  writings  of  the  ancients  and  the  true 
meaning  of  many  familiar  phrases  handed  down 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE 


RESULTS  OF  ATTEMPTS  TO  MAKE  HOMES  ON  THE  PUBLIC  LANDS 
WITHOUT  FIRST   PROVIDING  METHODS  OF  IRRIGATION. 


ARID    REGIONS    OF   THE   WORLD.  15 

to  us  without  bearing  in  mind  that  theirs  was  an 
arid  region,  where  agriculture  was  successful  only 
through  irrigation. 

The  small  map  (Fig.  3)  illustrates  the  great 
extent  of  aridity,  and  shows  that  the  Mediterra- 
nean countries,  including  Egypt,  the  seat  of  an- 
cient civilization,  are  for  the  most  part  arid  and 


Fit;.    3.  —  Map  of   humid  and  arid  regions  of  the  world  [the  humid 
indicated  by  the  black  areas]. 

desert-like  in  character.  The  dense  foliage  of  the 
forests  of  eastern  United  States  and  of  Europe 
and  the  verdant  covering  of  turf  so  common  in  our 
modern  towns  and  villages  were  practically  unknown 
to  the  races  who  produced  the  sacred  books  of  the 
East ;  and  their  constant  reference  to  the  life-giving 
qualities  of  water  furnishes  innumerable  instances 
of  the  high  esteem  in  which  this  was  held. 


16  IRRIGATION. 

PRECIPITATION. 

Aridity,  or  rather  the  unequal  distribution  of 
moisture,  is  largely  the  result  of  topography,  or  in- 
equalities of  land  surface.  If  the  earth  were  per- 
fectly flat,  it  is  probable  that  the  winds,  meeting 
with  no  obstructions,  would  distribute  the  rains  with 
considerable  uniformity  in  broad  bands  approxi- 
mately parallel  to  the  equator ;  but  the  relatively 
thin  layer  of  dense  atmosphere  surrounding  the 
globe  is  disturbed  in  its  uniform  flow  by  the  lofty 
mountain  masses  which  traverse  the  continents. 
The  atmosphere  surrounding  the  earth  extends 
outward  for  many  miles,  but  it  is  the  layer,  a  mile 
or  two  in  thickness,  resting  immediately  upon  the 
surface,  and  relatively  dense,  within  which  occur 
the  changes  or  disturbances  that  make  up  what 
we  know  as  "  weather."  The  movements  of  the 
air  above  this  thin  layer  concern  us  little ;  but 
the  behavior  of  the  clouds  and  the  winds  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground  brings  success  or  failure  to 
the  farmer,  and  affects  more. or  less  directly  other 
industries,  and  even  health. 

Taking  the  United  States  as  a  whole,  the  general 
atmospheric  movement  is  from  west  to  east ;  the 
moisture-laden  winds  from  the  Pacific,  encounter- 
ing the  mountain  masses  which  extend  along  or 
parallel  to  the  coast,  are  forced  upward  and  cooled, 
depositing  much  of  their  moisture,  especially  in 
the  winter  season.  They  then  pass  easterly  as  dry 


PRECIPITATION.  17 

winds,  leaving  the  broad  plains  east  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  parched  and  sterile.  In  the  summer,  how- 
ever, when  the  mountains  have  become  relatively 
warm,  winds  from  the  Pacific  pass  over  them  with- 
out leaving  their  moisture,  and  the  result  is  the 
summer  drought  characteristic  of  the  Pacific 
coast.  Passing  onward,  the  winds  not  deprived  of 
humidity  give  up  from  time  to  time  some  of  the 
precious  fluid,  and  thus  in  the  interior  there  are 
the  occasional  summer  rains  which  tend  to  make 
amends  for  the  deficient  precipitation  of  the  winter 
season. 

East  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Coast  ranges, 
and  of  the  plains  and  deserts  at  their  base,  are 
scattered  irregular  mountain  ranges,  and  the  great 
Cordillera  or  Rocky  Mountain  system,  whose  high 
summits  intercept  some  of  the  rain-bearing  winds, 
and  these  for  the  most  part  are  well  watered,  while 
the  low  lands  are  parched  with  drought.  From 
the  east  face  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  the  High 
Plains  stretch  out  through  the  Mississippi  Valley, 
dropping  gradually  in  altitude  to  the  rolling  plains 
and  prairies. 

The  average  monthly  precipitation  is  illustrated 
by  the  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  4),  which  brings 
out  graphically  the  contrast  between  the  distribu- 
tion of  precipitation  on  the  western  coast  and  in 
the  interior.  The  height  of  each  of  the  small 
black  columns  represents  the  average  amount  of 
rain  for  the  corresponding  month.  Taking,  for 


18 


IRRIGATION. 


example,  San  Francisco,  it  is  seen  that  the  rain 
for  January  averages  more  than  four  inches,  the 
amount  decreasing  during  February,  March,  and 
April,  and  becoming  less  than  one-half  an  inch 


->  -J<<rtO  Z  0 


WALLAWALLA 


BOISE. 


FT  ELLIS 


h 


IlllL^iil 


1 


lllLJl 


Jilll 


FT  Bl  DWELL 


PROMONTORY 


CHEYENNE 


Jl 


Hill.  ..till 


.llllll... 


SAN  FRANCISCO 


B  EOWAWE 


SANTA  FE 


tt 


Ill 


SANDICGO 


YUMA 


FT  STANTON 


III 


a 


I 


Fi'i.  4.  —  Mean  monthly  precipitation  at  twelve  localities  in  western 
United  States. 

in  May.  In  June,  July,  August,  and  September 
there  is  practically  a  drought,  with  sudden  increase 
in  amount  of  precipitation  in  October,  November, 
and  December.  In  contrast  to  this  is  the  distribu- 


MONTHLY    RAINFALL.  19 

tion  of  rainfall  at  Santa  Fe,  where  the  spring  and 
winter  months  have  comparatively  little  rainfall, 
the  greatest  amount  occurring  in  July  and  August. 
Thus  it  may  happen  that,  although  there  is  more 
than  twenty  inches  of  rainfall  each  year  at  points 
near  the  Pacific  coast,  yet  irrigation  is  necessary 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  crop  season,  and 
especially  in  the  summer;  while  in  other  localities 
having  less  annual  rainfall,  but  with  heavy  sum- 
mer precipitation,  the  artificial  application  of  water 
is  not  needed. 

This  diagram  (Fig.  4)  illustrates  the  actual 
amount  of  rain  and  snow  fall  in  an  average  year 
at  the  various  points,  and  shows  that  there  is 
a  wide  difference  in  the  quantity  received.  In 
some  localities  there  is  about  the  same  amount  of 
rainfall  each  month,  and  in  others  there  are  sum- 
mer droughts.  This  matter  is  brought  out  more 
clearly  when  we  compare,  not  the  actual  amount 
of  rain  each  month,  but  the  proportion  which  this 
bears  to  the  total  precipitation  of  the  year ;  that  is 
to  say,  calling  the  average  annual  rainfall  for  each 
locality  100,  the  amount  for  one  month,  if  the  rain 
fell  equally  throughout  the  year,  would  be  8.33,  or 
iV,  of  the  whole,  whether  the  total  amount  for  the 
year  be  15  inches  or  50  inches.  By  thus  obtain- 
ing monthly  percentages,  it  is  possible  to  compare 
the  character  of  the  rainfall  in  different  parts  of 
the  United  States.  This  is  done  in  the  following 
diagram  (Fig.  5),  which  shows,  not  the  actual 


20 


IRRIGATION. 


depth  of  rain,  but  the  percentage  for  each  month 
in  four    localities,    namely :    Buffalo,   New  York ; 


Buffalo,  New  York. 


Preacott,  Arizona. 


Lawrence,  Kansas. 


San  Francisco,  California. 


FIG.  5.  —  Types  of  monthly  distribution  of  precipitation,  shown  by  per- 
centages of  average  annual  rainfall. 

Lawrence,    Kansas ;    Prescott,  Arizona ;  and  San 
Francisco,  California. 

In  the  case  of  Buffalo  it  is  seen  that  the  average 


TYPES    OF   PRECIPITATION.  21 

rainfall  for  each  month  ranges  from  7  to  10  per 
cent,  never  quite  reaching  the  latter,  and  thus 
showing  that  throughout  the  year  very  nearly 
the  same  amount  of  precipitation  occurs.  Com- 
paring this  with  Prescott,  Arizona,  it  is  seen  that 
the  average  precipitation  in  one  month,  June,  is 
less  than  2  per  cent,  while  in  the  next  two  months 
it  is  raised  to  over  17  per  cent,  showing  the  great 
irregularity  and  the  necessity  of  providing  against 
a  June  drought. 

The  diagrams  for  Lawrence,  Kansas,  and  for 
San  Francisco,  California,  are  seen  to  supplement 
each  other,  although  in  San  Francisco  the  ex- 
tremes are  far  greater  than  in  Kansas.  There  is 
no  month  in  the  latter  state  when  the  rain  aver- 
ages less  than  4  per  cent  of  the  total,  while  in 
California,  during  July  and  August,  the  precipita- 
tion is  practically  nothing. 

These  diagrams,  being  illustrative  of  averages 
of  a  considerable  number  of  years,  exhibit  a  regu- 
larity which  does  not  occur  in  any  one  year.  The 
monthly  rainfall,  while  tending  to  follow  in  the 
long  run  a  certain  law,  is  from  season  to  season 
extremely  erratic,  —  the  amount  in  one  year 
being  sometimes  one-half  as  much  or  twice  as 
great  as  that  of  another.  To  illustrate  these  fluc- 
tuations the  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  6)  is 
given,  showing  the  variation  in  annual  rainfall 
at  three  points  near  the  centre  of  the  arid  regions, 
viz.,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  Fort  Wingate,  and 


22 


IRRIGATION. 


FIG.  6.  —  Variation  in  annual  rainfall  at  points  in 
the  arid  region. 


Santa  Fe",  New 
Mexico.  The 
average  annual 
rainfall,  indi- 
cated by  the 
heavy  horizon- 
tal line,  is  for 
Salt  Lake  City 
a  little  over  1 5 
inches.  In 
1880,  however, 
the  amount  was 
1 1  inches,  and 
in  1885  nearly 
22  inches, 
fluctuating,  as 
shown  on  the 
diagram,  be- 
tween icand 22 
inches.  Similar 
differences  can 
be  seen  in  the 
diagrams  for 
Fort  Win  gate 
and  Santa  Fe. 
It  is  to  be  noted, 
however,  that 
the  years  of 
excess  and  de- 
ficiency are  not 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  IV. 


ANNUAL   RAINFALL.  23 

coincident  even  in  the  localities  not  so  very  far 
apart. 

When  deficiency  occurs,  the  effects  of  the  aridity 
are  notably  increased,  and  an  exceptionally  large 
amount  of  water  is  needed  to  supply  the  lack  of 
rain.  These  same  fluctuations  occur  in  humid  cli- 
mates, but  their  effects  are  not  so  marked.  For 
example,  in  a  country  like  that  of  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board, where  the  precipitation  averages  50  inches, 
a  deficiency  of  10  inches  during  the  year  may  not 
have  a  noticeable  effect  upon  the  crops  and  indus- 
trial conditions,  but  in  a  country  of  20  inches  of 
annual  rainfall  a  deficiency  of  10  inches  may  re- 
sult in  the  disappearance  of  rivers  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  scanty  vegetation,  so  valuable  in  cattle 
and  sheep  industries. 

The  amount  of  precipitation  on  the  surface  of 
the  country,  although  varying  greatly  from  season 
to  season  and  from  year  to  year,  has  been  found  to 
have  a  certain  stability  when  looked  at  in  a  large 
way.  That  is  to  say,  although  for  a  series  of  years 
the  rainfall  may  apparently  have  been  increasing 
or  diminishing,  yet,  taking  a  long  record,  as  for 
example  one  hundred  years,  it  has  been  found  that 
the  average  for  the  first  quarter  or  third  of  this 
is  practically  the  same  as  that  for  the  last  third  or 
quarter.  In  short,  it  has  not  been  possible  to  de- 
tect any  progressive  increase  or  diminution  in  the 
amount  of  precipitation  when  records  extending 
over  thirty  or  forty  years  are  had. 


26  IRRIGATION. 

The  average  or  what  is  termed  the  normal  pre- 
cipitation for  each  part  of  the  country  can  be  com- 
puted. Departures  from  this  normal  may  be  in 
one  year  or  another  very  great,  and  for  a  series  of 
years  the  rainfall  may  be  above  or  below  the  nor- 
mal ;  nevertheless,  the  weather  conditions  seem  to 
swing  back,  no  matter  how  far  they  have  swayed. 
The  climate  may  be  regarded  as  fixed,  although 
the  weather  changes  widely  and  rapidly. 

It  is  because  climate  has  certain  fixed  relations 
to  localities,  that  it  becomes  possible  to  make  maps 
showing  the  general  distribution  of  precipitation. 
The  accompanying  map  (Fig.  7)  gives  the  distri- 
bution of  rainfall,  including  melted  snow,  over  the 
United  States.  It  indicates  that  in  the  East,  along 
the  Appalachian  region  and  near  the  coast,  there 
is  a  heavy  rainfall,  the  amount  decreasing  inland, 
and  increasing  again  very  rapidly  along  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  points  of  greatest  rainfall  are  in  north- 
western Washington  near  Puget  Sound,  and  at  the 
opposite  extreme  of  the  country,  near  the  Gulf  and 
Atlantic  coast. 

The  above-described  map  shows  the  depth  of 
water  which  falls  upon  the  land.  If  this  did  not 
flow  off  during  the  year,  but  all  stood  where  it  fell, 
the  ground  would  be  covered  with  water  from  an 
inch  or  two  in  depth  in  the  arid  region  up  to  five 
or  six  feet,  or  even  more,  on  the  mountains  and 
along  parts  of  the  seacoast.  Some  of  this  water, 
however,  sinks  into  the  soil  or  evaporates,  and  the 


FORESTS.  27 

remainder  flows  off,  forming  streams.  In  the 
present  discussion  we  are  particularly  concerned 
with  that  portion  which  runs  off  on  the  surface, 
and  at  this  place  a  companion  map  (Fig.  8)  is  in- 
troduced to  show  the  quantity  of  run-off,  in  com- 
parison with  the  rainfall.  This  indicates  that  where 
the  rain  is  heaviest  the  run-off  is  largest,  while  in 
localities  where  the  rain  is  very  light  there  may  be 
no  run-off  and  perennial  streams  do  not  exist. 
These  matters  are  more  fully  discussed  on  page 
58,  but  it  should  be  noted  that  where  there  is 
the  greatest  rainfall,  there  is  also  the  largest  pro- 
portion of  this  —  50  per  cent  or  more  —  flowing  in 
the  stream ;  while  where  the  rainfall  is  least,  only 
i  or  2  per  cent,  or  even  none,  goes  to  form 

rivers. 

FORESTS. 

The  mistaken  conception  is  sometimes  held  by 
citizens  of  the  humid  East  that  aridity  implies 
desert  conditions,  the  absence  of  vegetation,  and 
the  existence  of  naked  rocks  and  sand  glistening 
in  the  brilliant  sunshine.  On  the  contrary,  the 
area  of  land  which  should  be  classed  as  desert  is 
relatively  small.  West  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake  is 
a  desert-like  plain  of  sand  and  alkali,  almost  desti- 
tute of  vegetation,  where  a  few  thorny  or  woody 
plants  are  to  be  found  at  intervals.  Also,  in  south- 
ern California,  west  of  the  Colorado  River,  is  the 
Salton  Desert,  embracing  the  bottom  of  an  ancient 
arm  of  the  Gulf  of  California,  the  land  surface 


28  IRRIGATION. 

being  "in  some  places  three  hundred  feet  below  sea 
level,  but  shut  off  from  the  tides  by  the  bars  and 
ridges  of  mud  brought  down  by  the  river.  It  is 
estimated  that  there  are  70,000,000  acres  of  such 
desert  in  the  United  States  out  of  the  entire  area 
of  973,000,000  acres  comprising  the  western  public 
land  states  and  territories,  or  about  7  per  cent 
of  their  land  surface.  The  remainder  of  the  arid 
regions,  exclusive  of  these  deserts,  is  covered  with 
a  more  or  less  scanty  vegetation  of  some  value  to 
mankind. 

In  this  connection  it  is  desirable  to  emphasize 
the  fact  that  in  the  arid  regions  of  the  United 
States  there  are  no  desert  conditions  comparable  in 
character  and  extent  with  those  of  Africa.  There 
are  all  gradations  of  aridity,  these  differing  for  the 
same  locality  in  successive  years,  owing  to  fltictiui- 
tions  in  the  amount  of  rainfall.  In  the  somewhat 
arbitrary  classifications  just  adopted,  the  assump- 
tion has  been  made  that  lands  may  be  considered 
as  desert  where  for  a  number  of  years  in  succession 
grazing  is  impossible.  There  may  be  seasons  at 
rare  intervals  when  the  explorer  or  surveyor  can 
cross  even  these  areas  and  find  occasional  water 
and  forage  plants. 

The  higher  mountain  slopes  and  mesas  whose 
abrupt  rise  forces  upward  the  winds,  and  compels 
them  to  deposit  moisture,  have,  as  a  consequence 
of  the  increased  precipitation,  a  covering  of  trees. 
These  are  often  scattered,  but  in  many  localities 


EXTENT   OF   FORESTS.  29 

they  form  dense  and  valuable  forests.  Within  the 
arid  and  semiarid  portions  of  the  Western  states  it 
is  estimated  that  nearly  120,000,000  acres  are  cov- 
ered with  woodland,  the  individual  trees,  though 
scattered,  having  value  for  firewood,  fence  posts, 
and  other  purposes  essential  to  the  success  of  the 
pioneers  and  farmers.  In  addition,  however,  over 
75,000,000  acres  are  covered  with  heavy  forests, 
having  commercial  value  for  timber  and  furnishing 
logs  for  sawmills. 

The  aggregate  of  the  area  of  desert,  woodland, 
and  forest  forms  a  little  over  one-third  of  the  extent 
of  the  arid  and  semiarid  regions ;  the  remainder, 
estimated  at  470,000,000  acres,  is  grazing  land. 
Thus,  so  far  as  area  is  concerned,  it  is  evident  that 
the  grazing  industry — the  raising  of  range  stock, 
cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  goats  is,  and  probably 
always  will  be,  the  great  industry.  When  values 
are  considered,  however,  there  is  another  point  of 
view. 

The  open  range  of  the  arid  regions  is  generally 
stated  to  be  capable  of  supporting  a  cow  for  every 
twenty  or  thirty  acres ;  the  same  land,  when  watered 
and  put  in  alfalfa,  will  frequently  feed  ten  times  as 
many  cattle,  or  in  orchards,  with  favorable  climate, 
will  support  a  family  of  three,  or  even  five  persons. 
The  open  range  may  have  a  value  of  50  cents  an 
acre,  while  under  irrigation  the  selling  price  may 
rise  to  $50  per  acre,  or  even  $500  per  acre  when 
in  orchards.  Thus  the  value  of  the  lands  is 


30  IRRIGATION. 

directly  reversed  as  regards  acreage,  the  grazing 
land  having  the  greatest  extent,  and  the  irrigated 
land  the  least,  with  the  maximum  value  per 
acre. 

The  forests  of  the  arid  region  not  only  mark  the 
greatest  rainfall,  but  also  indicate  the  locality  from 
which  come  the  principal  streams.  The  head  waters 
of  nearly  all  of  the  rivers  which  give  value  to  the 
lands  are  within  forested  regions  (PL  V.)  It  is 
commonly  known  that  the  forests  to  a  certain 
extent  protect,  or  even  regulate,  the  flow  of  these 
streams,  and  it  has  been  urged  that  the  largest  and 
best  development  of  the  country  requires  the  con- 
servation of  the  forests  along  the  head  waters. 

Forest  conservation  is  practicable,  when  joined 
with  a  proper  cutting  of  the  timber.  Experience 
has  shown  that  the  removing  of  the  mature  or  ripe 
trees,  such  as  are  best  adapted  for  lumber,  may 
improve  the  general  conditions  of  the  forests.  In 
some  of  the  wooded  areas  of  the  West  the  propor- 
tion of  trees  which  have  passed  maturity  and  are 
dying  or  dead  is  as  hi<;h  as  40  per  cent.  It  is 
clear  that  such  trees  should  be  removed  before 
they  have  lost  their  value  and  have  become  a  source 
of  danger  to  the  younger  growth.  From  the  com- 
mercial standpoint  trees  have  first  value  for  lum- 
ber. Fortunately  the  proper  use  of  the  forests  in 
producing  lumber  is  not  antagonistic  to  their  pres- 
ervation and  to  the  perpetuation  of  favorable 
conditions  of  water  supply. 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  V. 


FORESTS   PARTLY  DESTROYED  (THE   DRAINAGE  FROM  THIS 
IRRIGATING   THE    FIELDS   SHOWN    BELOW). 


CULTIVATED  FIELDS  RECEIVING  WATER  FROM  THE  PARTLY 
FORESTED    MOUNTAINS. 


FOREST   PROTECTION.  31 

Public  sentiment  has  been  aroused  to  such  an 
extent  that  steps  have  already  been  taken  to  pre- 
serve some  of  the  forests  of  the  head  water  streams 
of  the  West,  primarily  for  the  beneficial  influence 
the  leafy  cover  may  have  upon  the  river  flow.  The 
national  government  has  set  aside  over  47,000,000 
acres  of  the  forests  and  adjacent  woodlands,  and 
efforts  are  being  made  to  preserve  all  the  remain- 
ing large  bodies  of  public  forests  thus  situated. 
This  first  step  is  being  followed  by  an  administra- 
tion which  will  preserve  the  forests  from  their 
great  enemy,  fire,  and  will  ensure  a  businesslike 
treatment  of  them,  under  which  they  will  yield  a 
revenue  sufficient  to  pay  the  cost  of  patrolling  and 
protecting  them.  The  preparation  and  execution 
of  systematic  plans  such  as  those  made  for  the 
public  forests  in  other  parts  of  the  world  will  make 
it  possible  to  protect  the  head  waters  without  cost 
to  the  tax-payer. 

The  accompanying  small  map  (Fig.  9)  exhibits 
the  general  distribution  of  the  forests  of  the  West, 
dark  spots  marking  the  mountains  or  highlands. 
On  this  map  the  black  portions  indicate  the  rela- 
tive position  of  the  areas  upon  which  trees  of 
commercial  value  are  growing,  or  have  recently 
grown ;  the  areas  surrounded  by  an  irregular  line 
indicate  the  wooded  localities  and  lower  mountains 
upon  which  are  scattered  trees  whose  size  or  con- 
dition is  such  that  they  are  not  suitable  for  lumber, 
although  they  have  great  value  to  the  settler  and 


IRRIGATION. 


farmer  in  the  way  of  furnishing  cheap  fuel  and 
material  for  fence   posts  and  for  building  cabins, 


FlG.  9.  —  Forests  and  woodlands  of  the  West. 

corrals,  and  shelter  for  cattle.     Much  of  the  open 
woodland  has  been  wisely  included  in  forest  res- 


LOCATION    OF   FORESTS.  33 

ervations,  because  under  efficient  protection  the 
more  valuable  trees  will  thrive. 

The  forest  reserves  already  created  do  not  by 
any  means  embrace  all  of  the  public  lands  covered 
with  valuable  trees,  but  each  has  been  set  aside  for 
some  specific  purpose,  — particularly  with  reference 
to  the  protection  of  the  head  waters  of  streams  used 
in  irrigation.  The  relative  location  of  these  forest 
reserves  is  shown  by  Fig.  10,  on  page  34. 

On  this  map  are  shown  not  only  the  forest 
reservations,  but  also  the  lands  still  held  for  the 
use  of  various  Indian  tribes,  some  of  these  lands 
including  wooded  areas.  There  are  also  shown 
the  Yellowstone,  Rainier,  and  Yosemite  National 
Parks,  which,  although  not  forest  reservations,  are 
of  the  same  general  character.  It  is  to  be  noted 
that  the  Indian  reservations,  which  formerly  em- 
braced almost  the  entire  West,  have  now  shrunk 
to  a  small  percentage  of  the  vast  country,  and 
are  steadily  diminishing  in  area,  while  the  forest 
reserves  are  being  enlarged.  The  lands  are  not 
being  entirely  taken  away  from  the  Indians,  but 
as  farms  are  allotted  in  severalty  to  the  heads 
of  Indian  families,  the  reservations  are  gradually 
diminished,  and  the  lands  in  excess  of  those 
specifically  allotted  are  sold  or  thrown  open  to 
homestead  entry  by  the  whites.  In  a  few  cases 
the  wooded  lands  formerly  embraced  in  the  Ind- 
ian reservations  have  been  made  into  forest 
reserves. 

D 


34 


IRRIGATION. 


The  care  and  protection  of  the  forest  reserva- 
tions, while  still   remaining  in  the    hands  of   the 


I'KJ.  10.  —  Relative  position  of  the  forest  and  Indian  reservations.    [The 
forest  reservations  are  shown  in  solid  black.] 

national  government,  has  not  as  yet  been  placed 
upon  a  wholly  satisfactory  basis.  Three  bureaus 
of  the  government  are  closely  concerned  with  the 


MAPPING   THE   FORESTS.  35 

forest  reservations.  To  the  General  Land  Office 
of  the  Department  of  the  Interior  has  been  in- 
trusted the  guarding  and  patrolling  of  the  reser- 
vations. The  survey  of  the  regions  within  and 
adjacent  to  the  reserves  has  been  intrusted  to  the 
Geological  Survey,  and  detailed  topographic  maps 
are  being  prepared,  showing  all  elevations  of  the 
surface,  the  streams  and  their  catchment  areas,  the 
extent  of  burns  resulting  from  fires,  the  amount 
of  cutting,  and  the  location  of  roads,  trails,  houses, 
or  cabins.  Upon  the  topographic  base  thus  pre- 
pared are  also  shown,  by  appropriate  colors,  the 
general  character  and  commercial  value  of  the 
standing  timber. 

Following  the  mapping  of  the  forest  reserves  by 
the  Geological  Survey  comes  the  systematic  exam- 
ination and  preparation  of  working  plans  by  the 
Bureau  of  Forestry  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. This  bureau,  which  is  working  in  close  co- 
operation with  the  Geological  Survey,  examines  the 
forests  with  great  detail  in  respect  to  the  particu- 
lar species  of  trees,  their  characteristics  and  dis- 
tribution, in  order  to  obtain  facts  upon  which  to 
base  working  plans  —  that  is,  recommendations  or 
outlines  of  methods  to  be  pursued  in  cutting  or  re- 
moving certain  sizes  and  grades  of  timber  so  as  to 
yield  the  largest  returns  and  to  produce  the  least 
injury,  or  rather  the  greatest  benefit,  to  the  forests, 
to  perpetuate  desirable  species,  and  to  minimize 
losses  by  fire.  In  this  a  system  has  been  followed 


36  IRRIGATION. 

which  has  been  adopted  by  some  of  the  large 
timber  owners  of  the  country.  By  an  efficient 
protection  from  fire  and  by  following-  carefully 
considered  working  plans,  it  is  possible  to  enlarge 
the  wooded  areas  upon  the  head  waters  of  streams 
of  the  arid  West,  and  to  increase  the  beneficial 
effect,  in  regulating  the  flow  of  the  streams  upon 
which  the  irrigators  depend. 

GRAZING    LANDS. 

By  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  arid  West 
consists  of  open  grazing  lands.  These  vary  in 
their  covering  of  forage  plants  from  the  extremely 
scanty  vegetation  of  the  deserts  up  to  the  thick 
turf  which  is  to  be  found  within  the  mountain 
parks.  The  broad  sandy  deserts  occasionally  re- 
ceive a  downpour  from  the  local  storms  or  cloud- 
bursts, and  there  springs  up  at  once  a  scanty 
herbage,  which,  though  apparently  dry  and  woody, 
is  nutritious  and  is  eagerly  sought  by  the  cattle. 
On  the  less  arid  plains  there  are  to  be  found  every 
year  a  number  of  grasses  and  smaller  plants  or 
shrubs,  which,  drying  under  the  intense  heat,  be- 
come in  effect  naturally  cured  hay,  and  which, 
though  sparsely  distributed,  thus  furnish  suste- 
nance for  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep. 

As  summer  approaches  and  the  heat  upon  the 
deserts  and  plains  becomes  intolerable,  the  herds 
and  flocks  gradually  move  up  into  the  mountains, 
and  find  excellent  grazing  upon  the  broad  slopes 


GRAZING   IN   THE   FORESTS.  37 

and  open  spaces  within  the  forested  areas ;  thus 
a  considerable  part  of  the  land  shown  on  the  small 
map  (Fig.  9)  as  wooded  and  forested  is  also  of 
value  for  grazing.  The  interests  of  the  cattle 
owner,  and  especially  the  sheep  owner,  and  of  the 
forester  are  sometimes  at  variance,  since  the  cattle, 
and  more  particularly  the  sheep,  when  the  country 
has  been  overgrazed,  browse  upon  the  young  her- 
bage and  prevent  the  growth  of  small  trees ;  so  it 
is  often  important  to  exclude  sheep,  and  even  cat- 
tle, from  the  forests  in  order  that  the  trees  may 
reproduce  themselves.  The  extension  of  forest 
reserves  has  been  frequently  opposed  by  the  sheep 
and  cattle  interests,  and  the  administration  of  the 
reserves  has  been  hampered  by  the  demand  for 
free  grazing  upon  the  public  lands,  but  this  oppo- 
sition has  now  ceased. 

The  sheep  industry  is  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  arid  regions,  and  the  profits  are  large,  so 
that  from  a  commercial  standpoint  it  is  highly  im- 
portant that  the  grazing  lands  extend  as  widely  as 
possible,  even  into  the  forest  reserves.  It  is  not 
good  public  policy  to  prevent  the  growth  of  wool 
valued  at  $10  in  order  to  encourage  trees  which  are 
worth  only  $i.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  prepare 
working  plans  for  the  forests  which,  while  prevent- 
ing overgrazing,  will  permit  the  use  of  the  forests 
as  a  summer  range  with  a  minimum  amount  of 
injury  to  the  young  growth.  A  general  plan  has 
recently  been  adopted,  which  it  is  hoped  will  ulti- 


38  IRRIGATION. 

mately  satisfy  the  irrigators  on  the  one  hand,  who 
are  concerned  in  protecting  their  water  supply,  and 
the  sheep  owners  on  the  other,  who  demand  that 
their  flocks  shall  graze  wherever  young  plants  can 
be  found. 

Forest  protection  and  sheep  grazing  are  not 
wholly  incompatible,  for  there  are  certain  forested 
areas  where  sheep  have  been  and  can  be  allowed 
to  run  without  serious  damage.  The  exclusion  of 
sheep  from  the  forest  reserves  should,  where  neces- 
sary, be  brought  about  gradually,  so  as  not  to  injure 
this  important  industry,  and  the  conditions  of  each 
locality  must  be  carefully  considered  before  sheep 
and  cattle  are  either  excluded  or  permitted  to  graze. 
The  tendency  undoubtedly  will  be  to  restrict  the 
wide  range  of  the  sheep  and  to  bring  the  indus- 
try to  the  conditions  prevailing  in  older,  settled 
communities,  where  the  sheep  are  fed  through  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  year  upon  improved 
pastures,  or  with  forage  raised  by  irrigation. 

The  approximate  location  and  extent  of  the  open 
or  free  grazing  land  are  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing map  (Fig.  n),  the  crossed  lines  indicating  the 
lands  where,  for  the  most  part,  sheep,  cattle,  and 
horses  graze  freely.  Some  of  this  is  in  private 
ownership,  particularly  in  western  Nebraska  and 
Kansas.  Texas  has  been  excluded,  as  the  state 
has  sold  or  leased  nearly  all  of  its  grazing  lands  to 
large  cattle  owners  and  the  range  land  is  nearly  all 
enclosed  by  fences.  The  scale  of  the  map  is  too 


EXTENT   OF   GRAZING. 


39 


small  to  exhibit  deserts  and  mountain  tops  where 
no  forage  plants  are  found.  The* sketch  empha- 
sizes the  fact  that  throughout  nearly  one-half  of 


FIG.  ii.  —  Approximate  location  and  extent  of  the  open  range. 

the  United  States  grazing  is  the  principal  industry. 
Any  plan  of  reclamation  and  utilization  of  the 
vast  arid  areas  must  take  cognizance  of  this  fact 
and  be  shaped  accordingly. 

Irrigation  may  be  regarded  from  one  standpoint 


40  IRRIGATION. 

as  an  outgrowth  or  later  development  of  the  graz- 
ing industry,  especially  in  the  more  northern  part  of 
the  arid  region.  In  the  early  days  the  sheep  and 
cattle  on  the  open  ranges  at  the  approach  of  cold 
weather  were  brought  into  the  lower  valleys  or 
sought  natural  shelter.  During  severe  winters  the 
losses  were  very  large,  occasionally  one-half  of 
the  stock  dying  during  long-continued  or  extremely 
stormy  weather.  With  the  increase  in  the  busi- 
ness and  the  overstocking  of  the  ranges,  the  neces- 
sity of  providing  winter  feed  for  the  young  or  less 
vigorous  animals  became  more  evident,  and  at  the 
home  ranches  small  areas  began  to  be  irrigated  in 
order  to  provide  forage  for  the  winter. 

This  process  has  continued  to  a  greater  and  greater 
extent,  until  a  balance  has  been  reached  between  the 
available  summer  range  and  the  winter  food  supply 
raised  by  irrigation  ;  that  is  to  say,  a  cattle  owner 
can  maintain  as  many  animals  as  he  can  feed  for 
two  or  three  months  with  forage  raised  by  irriga- 
tion, provided  he  can  obtain  sufficient  range.  If, 
however,  his  summer  range  is  limited  or  is  partly 
injured  by  the  incursions  of  sheep,  he  may  find  it 
economical  to  reduce  the  amount  of  feed  raised  by 
artificial  watering. 

The  tendency  in  the  stock-raising  business  is 
toward  an  increase  of  small  owners  and  decrease 
of  great  herds  and  flocks,  owing  to  the  competition 
for  summer  range  and  the  necessity  for  providing 
an  increased  amount  of  winter  feed.  There  is  a 


OVERGRAZING.  41 

gradual  evolution  from  stock  raising  toward  what  is 
sometimes  known  as  stock  farming ;  that  is,  the 
owner  of  a  relatively  small  herd  is  tempted  to  put 
his  irrigated  land  into  other  crops  besides  forage, 
or  to  raise  an  additional  amount  for  sale  in  local 
markets.  Thus,  in  the  stock-raising  districts  there 
is  a  gradual  development  toward  intensive  farming. 

Nearly  every  settler  upon  the  public  domain,  even 
though  intending  ultimately  to  raise  the  ordinary 
farm  crops  and  fruits,  requires  for  a  time  a  certain 
amount  of  grazing  land.  He  must  have  a  few 
draft  animals  and  dairy  cows,  and,  as  a  rule,  finds 
it  profitable  to  own  a  small  herd  of  cattle  or  a 
band  of  sheep.  He  desires  and  needs  the  use  of 
the  public  land  in  his  vicinity,  in  order  that  he  may 
herd  his  cattle  near  his  home  and  bring  them  in 
each  day  or  at  frequent  intervals. 

Under  existing  law  the  settler  who  is  making  a 
home  has  no  legal  claim  or  right  to  the  use  of  this 
public  land  other  than  the  right  possessed  by  every 
citizen  of  the  country.  Thus,  there  frequently 
occur  acts  which  seem  to  the  settler  to  be  grossly 
unjust,  in  that  cattle  or  sheep  belonging  to  some 
non-resident  individual,  or  to  a  wealthy  corpora- 
tion, may  come  upon  the  land  in  his  vicinity  and 
destroy  all  of  the  nutritious  vegetation,  leaving  his 
own  cattle  to  starve.  Since  the  settler  is  trying  to 
make  a  home  and  is  paying  taxes  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  law  and  order,  he  feels  that  he  has  a  supe- 
rior right  to  the  use  of  the  unoccupied  land,  at  least 


42  IRRIGATION. 

until  the  land  is  wanted  for  homes  by  other  settlers, 
or  until  he  is  in  position  to  raise  by  irrigation  suffi- 
cient forage  for  his  cattle.  Thus  the  settler  is  often 
at  war  with  the  cattle  and  sheep  owners,  and  many 
areas  which  might  have  been  utilized  for  homes 
have  been  kept  vacant  through  fear  of  depreda- 
tions by  the  cattlemen  or  even  as  the  result  of 
open  violence. 

On  the  free  range  there  are  also  controversies 
between  rival  live-stock  owners,  and  particularly  be- 
tween the  sheep  owners  and  the  cattlemen.  The 
two  kinds  of  animals  cannot  graze  on  the  same  area, 
and,  as  a  rule,  a  band  of  sheep  will  render  the  range 
unfit  for  cattle  and  will  drive  the  latter  out.  With 
the  growth  of  the  wool  industry,  the  range  devoted 
to  cattle  is  being  encroached  upon,  and  many  of  the 
owners  are  disposing  of  their  herds  and  going  into 
the  sheep  business,  finding  it  possible  to  make  a 
living  on  the  public  lands  by  sheep  grazing  when 
not  successful  with  cattle. 

In  many  localities  there  has  come  about  what 
may  be  termed  an  armed  neutrality  among  the 
various  interests  concerned  with  the  use  of  the 
public  land.  The  settler  and  irrigator,  having  ob- 
tained a  foothold,  has  been  able  by  combining  with 
his  fellows,  and  by  show  of  force  at  times,  to  secure 
for  himself  the  use  of  certain  pieces  of  public  land 
for  grazing.  The  cattle  companies  and  larger 
owners  have,  as  a  rule,  found  it  good  policy  not 
to  encroach  upon  the  settlers  who  are  already 


SHEEP   GRAZING.  43 

established,  and  have  combined  with  these  men 
to  exclude  sheep  from  the  cattle  range  used  by 
all  in  common.  The  sheep  owners,  after  various 
conflicts  and  conferences,  have  agreed  to  abide 
within  certain  other  ranges,  and  for  a  time  at  least 
peace  has  been  assured  and  all  have  been  fairly 
content. 

The  condition  just  noted  is  an  unstable  one, 
likely  to  be  upset  at  any  moment  by  the  gradually 
increasing  herds  of  one  or  another  of  the  parties 
to  the  mutual  understanding,  or  by  erratic  bands 
of  sheep.  For  example,  by  tacit  consent  a  certain 
mountainous  or  hilly  area  may  have  been  set  aside 
for  cattle  grazing  for  the  benefit  of  the  inhabitants 
of  a  portion  of  a  county.  It  has  frequently  hap- 
pened that  the  owner  of  large  bands  of  sheep  in 
another  state,  learning  that  the  grazing  is  good  in 
this  area,  sends  great  bands  (PI.  VI,  B)  aggregat- 
ing fifty  thousand  or  one  hundred  thousand  sheep 
through  this  part  of  the  country,  travelling  toward 
the  mountains  or  market.  Such  hordes  of  sheep, 
progressing  slowly,  literally  destroy  all  edible  vege- 
tation, devastate  and  ruin  the  land,  and  completely 
upset  all  local  customs  and  privileges.  Occasion- 
ally an  inundation  of  this  kind  is  resisted  by  force, 
and  from  time  to  time  local  newspapers  have  a  brief 
item  to  the  effect  that  an  unknown  sheep  herder 
was  found  dead  in  a  remote  spot,  or  that  bands  of 
sheep  have  been  dispersed  or  driven  over  cliffs  by 
unknown  persons. 


44  IRRIGATION. 

With  the  uncertain  conditions  surrounding  the 
use  of  the  public  lands,  it  is  a  natural  consequence 
that  practically  all  the  farmers  and  irrigators  of 
the  arid  region,  as  well  as  the  stockmen,  ask  that 
there  be  accorded  the  grazing  lands  some  definite 
treatment  by  which,  pending  complete  or  final  r~t- 
tlement,  temporary  rights  may  be  had  to  the  use  of 
the  forage.  It  is  highly  essential  for  all  concerned 
to  be  able  to  enjoy  undisturbed  possession  from 
year  to  year  of  certain  lands  to  be  used  for  grazing 
purposes.  For  such  a  license  the  owners  of  the 
sheep,  cattle,  or  horses  are  willing  to  pay  a  suitable 
compensation. 

The  necessity  of  restricting  grazing  on  portions 
of  the  public  domain  has  become  apparent,  partic- 
ularly in  Arizona,  where  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
territory  there  are  areas  upon  which  the  industry 
has  practically  exterminated  itself.  In  one  locality 
in  the  vicinity  of  Tucson,  where  formerly  20,000 
head  of  cattle  ranged,  only  a  few  hundred  can  now 
find  subsistence.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  some 
years  ago,  when  there  was  a  decline  in  the  value 
of  cattle,  the  shipments  were  reduced  and  the  herds 
multiplied.  Then  came  a  season  when  the  drought 
was  severe,  the  feed  became  scanty,  and  the  starv- 
ing cattle  ate  practically  every  living  shrub,  digging 
down  even  to  the  roots,  so  that  plants  and  cattle 
perished  together.  The  few  cattle  remaining  have 
been  sufficient  to  prevent  the  forage  plants  from 
spreading  again,  but  where  small  areas  have  been 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  VI, 


A.    YOUNG  FOREST  GROWTH   SUCCEEDING  A   FIRE. 


B.    SHEEP  GRAZING  IN  THE   FORESTS. 


RECOVERY  FROM  OVERGRAZING.     45 

enclosed  the  native  grasses  have  come  back  and 
are  flourishing. 

This  natural  recovery  of  the  enclosed  range  has 
been  demonstrated  by  the  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  of  Arizona.  A  field  of  350  acres  has  been 
fenced  and  carefully  studied,  the  conditions  of  rain- 
fall, moisture  distribution,  and  plant  reproduction 
being  observed.  It  has  been  shown  that  the 
grasses,  when  protected,  not  only  spread  over  the 
ground,  but  also  serve  to  obstruct  the  rapid  run-off 
of  the  water  resulting  from  the  sudden  and  capri- 
cious storms  of  the  country.  The  vegetation  causes 
a  greater  portion  of  this  water  to  sink  into  the  soil, 
where  it  is  stored  for  future  use  by  the  plants. 

The  Papago  Indians  of  the  Southwest,  living  by 
crude  methods  of  agriculture,  have  learned  how  to 
make  use  of  the  erratic  water  supply  and  have 
demonstrated  the  practicability  of  storing  flood 
waters  in  the  soil.  Whenever  it  rains  and  the 
water  runs  down  the  little  gullies  near  their  lands, 
every  man,  woman,  and  child  turns  out  in  the  storm 
and  builds  small  dams,  or  levees,  holding  the  water 
as  far  as  possible  on  the  series  of  hastily  con- 
structed low  terraces.  When  the  water  sinks  in, 
they  at  once  plant  corn  upon  the  wet  surface,  and 
as  a  result  the  tribe  is  fat  and  happy  during  the 
next  winter.  Observation  has  shown  that  even  as 
small  an  amount  of  rain  as  o.  I  inches  will  cause 
running  water  on  lands  denuded  by  excessive  graz- 
ing. If,  however,  this  water  can  be  held  back  by 


46  IRRIGATION. 

the  plants,  it  will  soak  into  the  ground  and  soon 
increase  the  supply  of  forage. 

There  is  a  balance  which  must  be  preserved  be- 
tween the  interests  of  the  cattlemen  in  keeping  the 
largest  possible  number  of  cattle  on  a  range  and 
those  of  irrigators  and  the  public  in  general  in  secur- 
ing the  best  ultimate  use  of  the  lands.  Too  many 
cattle  means  the  destruction  of  the  forage  plants, 
washing  of  the  soil,  rapid  run-off,  and  accumula- 
tion of  silt  in  the  lower  rivers.  In  a  larger  way 
it  is  really  to  the  interest  of  the  cattlemen  not  to 
overstock  the  range,  but  for  immediate  individual 
gain  this  is  always  likely  to  happen  unless  regu- 
lated. 

By  totally  excluding  cattle  from  certain  depleted 
areas  it  may  be  possible  to  restore  these  after  a 
few  years,  and  the  natural  growth  can  be  further 
increased  by  the  construction  of  inexpensive  em- 
bankments thrown  up  by  suitable  machines  or 
graders,  such  as  to  bring  out  upon  the  grazing 
land  the  waters  which  from  time  to  time  come 
rushing  down  the  little  gullies.  It  has  been  shown 
on  a  small  scale  by  the  experiments  at  Tucson  that 
these  embankments  can  be  made  by  hand  at  a  cost 
of  less  than  $1.00  per  acre,  sufficient  to  distribute 
the  storm  waters  and  allow  these  to  soak  in,  re- 
sulting in  a  yield  of  grass  in  that  dry  climate  dense 
enough  to  be  mowed  by  a  machine.  Instead  of 
three-quarters  of  the  water  rushing  off  to  waste, 
practically  all  of  it  can  thus  be  held  on  the  upper 


LICENSE   FOR  GRAZING.  47 

catchment  basins  of  the  rivers  and  the  value  of  the 
range  land  enormously  increased. 

Under  present  conditions  there  is  no  inducement 
for  any  person  to  guard  or  protect  the  open  range 
land,  and  as  a  result  the  valuable  forage  plants  are 
eaten  down  so  closely  as  to  be  destroyed.  If,  how- 
ever, one  man  or  an  association  of  men  had  the 
exclusive  right  to  the  grazing  on  a  certain  area  for 
a  term  of  years,  it  would  be  to  his  or  their  advan- 
tage not  to  overstock  the  range,  but  to  treat  it  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  would  not  deteriorate. 

Should  any  law  be  enacted  regulating  the  tem- 
porary use  of  the  public  land  for  grazing,  it  should 
be  framed  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  retard  the  devel- 
opment of  irrigation  and  the  settlement  of  the  land 
by  homesteaders.  It  is  probable  that  the  licenses 
granted  for  grazing  could  be  made  subject  to  the 
deduction  of  relatively  small  areas  for  settlement 
without  in  any  way  interfering  with  the  value  of 
these  licenses.  The  great  object  is  to  promote 
the  permanent  settlement  of  the  country  and  the 
making  of  homes. 

In  order  to  provide  wise  laws,  it  is  necessary  to 
take  cognizance  of  the  customs  which  have  resulted 
from  experience.  In  nearly  all  counties  of  the  arid 
states  certain  practices  have  arisen  in  regard  to 
grazing,  many  of  which  might  be  recognized  as 
binding,  temporarily  at  least,  until  better  systems 
are  devised.  For  example,  it  has  been  customary 
to  take  sheep  from  the  winter  feeding  grounds, 


48  IRRIGATION. 

where  forage  raised  by  irrigation  has  been  pro- 
vided, and  drive  them  out  along  certain  portions  of 
the  cattle  range  up  into  the  mountain  valleys  to 
spend  the  summer,  later  bringing  them  back  again 
by  a  different  route.  This  right  of  transit  must  be 
recognized  in  any  license  given  for  cattle  grazing, 
and  yet  must  be  so  guarded  as  not  to  be  capable 
of  abuse  by  keeping  the  sheep  too  long  on  the 
road  and  allowing  them  to  eat  too  great  a  propor- 
tion of  the  vegetation. 

Provisions  in  permits  for  sheep  grazing  can  be 
made  comparatively  simple,  since  the  sheep  are 
always  herded  and  are  under  complete  control. 
With  cattle  and  horses,  however,  close  herding  is 
impracticable,  except  in  the  case  of  small  numbers 
owned  by  settlers.  It  is  generally  impossible  to 
assign  a  definite  range  to  a  certain  owner,  as  the 
cattle  cannot  be  kept  within  bounds  without  expen- 
sive fences,  and  the  fencing  of  the  public  domain 
is  and  should  continue  to  be  illegal.  The  use  of 
individual  cattle  ranges  is  to  a  large  extent  imprac- 
ticable except  by  owners  of  great  herds.  As  a 
rule,  it  will  be  necessary  to  allow  the  cattle  range 
to  be  used  in  common  by  many  owners,  the  number 
of  head  of  stock  being  agreed  upon. 

This  matter  of  the  regulation  of  grazing  has 
been  emphasized  in  the  preceding  pages,  as  it  is 
one  of  fundamental  concern  in  any  new  country, 
and  has  an  intimate  relation  to  the  development  of 
irrigation  and  the  complete  utilization  of  the  public 


CULTIVATED    LANDS.  49 

domain.  The  land  laws,  which,  as  before  noted, 
have  been  made  with  reference  to  the  humid  con- 
ditions, have  not  recognized  this  fact,  and  thus  the 
rights  of  the  pioneers  have  been  left  undefined  and 
to  the  arbitration  of  force  rather  than  of  law. 

CULTIVATED    LANDS. 

The  cultivated  lands  of  the  western  half  of  the 
United  States,  especially  those  within  the  arid 
region,  form  but  a  very  small  portion  of  the  total 
land  surface,  in  some  states  being  less  than  one 
per  cent.  Dry  farming  —  that  is,  the  cultivation 
of  the  soil  without  the  artificial  application  of 
water  —  has  been  attempted,  but  has  been  only 
moderately  successful  west  of  the  9/th  merid- 
ian, except  in  the  humid  regions  near  the  Pacific 
coast  and  in  a  few  localities  where  the  conditions 
of  soil  and  of  local  rainfall  have  been  favorable. 
The  accompanying  map  (Fig.  12)  has  been  pre- 
pared to  illustrate  the  extent  to  which  dry  farming 
has  been  attempted.  In  the  extreme  western  por- 
tion of  Kansas  and  eastern  Colorado,  experiments 
have  been  conducted  on  a  large  scale,  but  have 
rarely  been  successful ;  yet  at  many  of  the  spots 
shown  in  the  centre  of  the  map,  and  particularly 
in  Washington,  Oregon,  and  California,  wheat  and 
other  cereals  are  successful  where  the  annual  rain- 
fall is  even  less  than  in  eastern  Colorado. 

One  of  the  notable  features  on  this  map  is  the 
fact  that  these  dry  farming  areas  are  found  in 


50  IRRIGATION. 

nearly  every  state  and  territory  of  the  arid  region. 
Agriculture  without  irrigation  is  thus  widely  prac- 


f^    }  ' \»4HT.  I 

C*Si#--jH! 

I*>T-^   /   N^      ,«»*/  %      J^*5g 

*tf    '/       "*^^*s^«l/       WVQ''    Nf^l.      ^ 


v.  »i 
/     --COLO 


(      ""'Hi,    «.«CX. 


FlG.  12.  —  Map  of  dry  farming. 

tised,  although  it  must  be  considered  as  excep- 
tional. The  area  is  gradually  being  extended  as 
skill  is  acquired  in  the  cultivation  of  some  of  the 


DRY    FARMING.  51 

more  hardy  or  drought-resisting  plants,  and  as 
species  or  varieties  suited  to  the  climatic  condi- 
tions are  found.  The  cereals,  such  as  rye,  wheat, 
and  barley,  form  the  greater  part  of  the  crops  thus 
raised  by  dry  farming,  the  growth  or  development 
of  these  being  made  possible  by  thorough  tilling  of 
the  soil  and  by  planting  at  a  season  of  the  year 
when  the  largest  amount  of  moisture  is  available. 

As  an  example  of  what  is  being  accomplished 
without  irrigation  may  be  given  the  bench  lands 
around  Cache  Valley  in  Utah.  These  high  lands, 
to  which  water  cannot  be  brought  by  ditches,  were 
ten  years  ago  considered  as  valueless.  Experi- 
ments were  made  by  the  farmers  in  growing  wheat 
on  the  lower  lands  without  irrigation,  and  gradu- 
ally the  cultivated  areas  were  extended  up  the  hill 
slopes  to  the  higher  lands.  Various  varieties  of 
winter  wheat  were  tried,  and  it  was  found  that 
these  bench  lands,  receiving  a  covering  of  snow 
during  the  winter,  were  capable  of  producing  good 
crops  of  wheat.  The  yield,  although  not  so  large 
as  on  irrigated  land,  is  sufficient  to  afford  a  fair 
profit. 

There  is  reason  to  hope  that,  with  the  activity  in 
searching  for  new  and  valuable  plants,  and  the 
numerous  experiments  being  made,  the  extent  of 
cultivable  land  can  be  greatly  increased  on  the 
areas  of  good  soil  for  which  water  cannot  be  had. 
It  is  not  reasonable  to  suppose,  however,  that  dry 
farming  will  ever  add  greatly  to  the  population 


52  IRRIGATION. 

and  wealth  of  the  arid  region ;  it  will  rather  tend 
to  perpetuate  the  condition  of  sparse  settlement 
and  careless  tilling  of  large  areas.  It  is  only  by 
practising  irrigation  where  water  can  be  had  that 
intensive  farming  is  possible,  and  with  this  the 
best  development  of  the  country. 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  the 
relative  proportion  of  lands  cultivated  to  those 
which  may  be  considered  as  cultivable,  taking  a 
belt  across  the  United  States.  The  accompanying 
figure,  prepared  by  Mr.  Willard  D.  Johnson,  is  in- 


FIG.  13. —  Comparison  of  cultivable  and  cultivated  areas  in  belt  of 
states  across  the  United  States.  [The  solid  black  show  the  cultivate  1 
and  the  cross-lined  portions  indicate  the  uncultivated  but  cultivable 
land.] 

tended  to  illustrate  the  great  difference  which 
exists.  Beginning  with  Massachusetts,  with  33  per 
cent  of  the  cultivable  area  in  use,  the  proportion 
gradually  increases  westward  to  Illinois  and  Iowa, 
with  nearly  three-quarters  of  the  land  capable  of 
cultivation  in  crop,  and  then  decreases  rapidly, 
until  in  Nevada  only  i  per  cent  is  utilized.  With 
complete  water  conservation  and  systems  for  its 
distribution,  the  cultivated  area  of  Utah,  Nevada, 
and  adjacent  states  might  be  increased  many  fold. 
The  actual  amount  of  land  which  is  irrigable  has 
been  variously  estimated  at  from  sixty  to  one  .him- 


AREA   CULTIVABLE.  53 

dred  millions  of  acres.  There  is  possibility  of 
wide  difference  of  opinion,  since  all  estimates  must 
be  based  on  certain  assumptions  as  to  the  com- 
pleteness with  which  the  floods  can  be  saved  and 
waters  beneath  the  surface  brought  back  to  the 
fields.  Noting  the  wonderful  progress  in  engineer- 
ing and  in  various  applications  of  scientific  knowl- 
edge, there  seems  to  be  ground  for  the  most 
optimistic  view.  On  the  other  hand,  when  prog- 
ress already  made  is  considered,  arguments  can 
be  advanced  against  the  practicability  of  utilizing 
much  of  the  erratically  distributed  water  supply 
of  the  arid  region.  In  order  to  present,  however, 
some  general  conception  of  the  possibilities  of 
irrigation,  the  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  14)  has 
been  prepared,  showing  by  black  spots  the  areas 
irrigated  and  by  dots  the  lands  irrigable  under  a 
better  development  of  the  water  resources. 

The  irrigated  lands,  whose  relative  position  is  in- 
dicated by  the  black  spots,  are  of  necessity  greatly 
exaggerated ;  the  lands  which  are  actually  under 
ditch  are  so  scattered  and  relatively  small  in  area 
that  on  a  map  of  this  scale  it  is  impossible  to  show 
them  in  anything  like  their  true  magnitude.  The 
object  of  the  illustration  is  to  bring  to  the  eye  the 
fact  that  the  irrigated  lands  are  scattered  through- 
out the  West,  forming  in  aggregate  less  than  i  per 
cent  of  the  total  land  area,  and  are  surrounded  by 
tracts  5  or  10  times  as  large,  which  are  capable  of 
being  irrigated  under  ideal  conditions. 


54 


IRRIGATION. 


The  following  table  gives  in  round  numbers  the 
relative  extent  of  the  grazing,  woodland,  forest,  des- 
ert, and  improved  land  in  the  arid  and  semiarid 


FIG.  14.  —  Map  of  irrigated  and  irrigable  lands. 

public  land  states.  The  totals  are  given  in  millions 
of  acres,  omitting  the  figures  of  less  than  a  million 
in  all  cases  except  where  the  totals  of  improved  or 
irrigated  land  are  below  one  million.  There  is  also 


LAND   CLASSIFICATION. 


55 


appended  a  statement  of  the  estimated  water  sup- 
ply, in  similar  terms,  assuming  a  complete  develop- 
ment and  conservation  of  the  water  resources. 


GRAZING,  WOODLAND,  FOREST,  DESERT,  AND  IRRIGATED 
LAND,  AND  EXTENT  OF  WATER  SUPPLY.  IN  WESTERN 
PUBLIC  LAND  STATES,  IN  MILLIONS  OF  ACRES. 


i 

"a 

STATES  AND  TERRI- 

i 

3 

M 

1 

1 

"i 

1 

TORIES. 

1! 

a 

1 

2 

1 

2 

a 

.1 

1 

3 

O 

£ 

fo 

* 

* 

~ 

* 

Arizona    .... 

72 

38 

9 

10 

15 

0.2 

O.2 

2 

California      .     .     . 

99 

20 

26 

18 

20 

15 

15 

17 

Colorado  .... 

66 

40 

14 

10 

2 

1.2 

8 

Idaho 

C.A 

2O 

IQ 

I 

O.  £ 

*)T" 

1  7 

Montana  .... 

93 

56 

15 

21 

I 

0.8 

ii 

Nebraska 

49 

25 

2 

22 

2 

Nevada    .... 

70 

42 

6 

I 

20 

I 

o-5 

2 

New  Mexico      .     . 

78 

57 

16 

4 

o-5 

0.2 

4 

North  Dakota  .     . 

45 

38 

i 

6 

2 

Oregon     .... 

60 

18 

17 

20 

5 

O-3 

3 

South  Dakota  .     . 

49 

38 

i 

10 

2 

Utah    

52 

18 

'4 

8 

10 

2 

^•5 

4 

Washington  .     .     . 

43 

9 

9 

23 

2 

O.I 

3 

Wyoming      .     .     . 

62 

39 

10 

7 

5 

I 

0-5 

9 

The  desert-like  lands  —  those  upon  which  no 
grazing  is  possible  even  in  winter  or  after  the  rains 
of  early  spring  —  are  relatively  small;  they  are 
found  mainly  in  the  states  of  California,  Nevada, 
Utah,  Wyoming,  and  the  territory  of  Arizona.  In 
all  they  aggregate  about  70,000,000  acres,  as  noted 


56  IRRIGATION. 

on  page  28.  The  surface  of  these  areas  is 
mainly  sand  and  barren  rock,  the  soil  often  being 
charged  with  an  excess  of  soluble  earthy  salts,  so 
that,  even  when  moistened,  plants  cannot  grow. 
Such,  for  example,  are  the  broad  flats  adjacent  to 
Great  Salt  Lake,  in  Utah,  and  the  land  around  the 
sinks  of  the  Humboldt,  Carson,  and  Walker  in 
Nevada.  Other  plains,  such  as  those  of  south- 
eastern California  adjacent  to  the  Colorado  River, 
have  a  soil  which  is  fertile  and  produces  large 
crops  whenever  water  can  be  had.  Portions  of 
these  lands  are  reclaimable  by  deep  or  artesian 
wells,  or  by  storing  in  reservoirs  the  intermittent 
floods -of  small  streams  which  flow  from  the  border- 
ing mountains. 

On  PI.  VII  are  shown  views  of  the  broad  ex- 
panses designated  in  the  geographies  of  a  genera- 
tion ago  as  deserts,  impassable  for  lack  of  water. 
Beneath  the  surface  of  many  of  these  almost 
boundless  wastes  water  has  recently  been  found, 
and  by  means  of  windmills  it  is  brought  to  the 
surface,  making  oases  and  rendering  possible  the 
use  of  the  land  for  grazing.  The  herbage,  though 
scanty,  is  nutritious ;  and  by  placing  windmills  and 
tanks  at  intervals  of  10  or  15  miles,  cattle  can 
graze  over  the  whole  region. 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  VII, 


CATTLE  ON  THE   OPEN   RANGE. 


CHAPTER    III. 

SURFACE  WATERS. 

IN  the  practice  of  irrigation  and  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  vacant  lands  of  the  country  the  waters 
of  the  surface  streams  play  the  most  important  part, 
supplying  fully  90  per  cent  of  the  irrigated  land. 
Of  less  relative  importance,  but  still  of  great  value, 
are  the  underground  waters  obtained  by  flowing 
wells  or  by  pumping.  The  accompanying  small 
map  (Fig.  15)  shows  in  a  general  way  the  princi- 
pal river  systems  of  the  United  States.  The  most 
striking  feature  is  the  relatively  large  area  drained 
by  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries.  This  extends 
from  the  Appalachian  mountain  region  on  the  east 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains  on  the  west,  including  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  arid  region.  To  the 
east  of  the  Mississippi  basin  are  numerous  large 
streams  flowing  into  the  Atlantic,  and  on  the  north 
are  the  Great  Lakes  draining  into  the  St.  Lawrence. 
All  of  this  part  of  the  United  States  receives  a 
copious  rainfall,  usually  from  40  to  60  inches  per 
annum,  or  even  more,  as  shown  by  Fig.  7  (p.  24). 

In  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  the 
great  problem  is  to  take  away  the  excess  water 

57 


58  IRRIGATION. 

from  the  lowlands,  rather  than  to  bring  a  needed 
supply  from  some  river.  Drainage  ditches  are 
dug,  in  many  respects  similar  to  irrigation  canals, 
but  reversed  as  to  slope  or  grade, — that  is,  they 
conduct  the  water  from  the  land  by  gradually 
descending  channels  into  rivers  at  slightly  lower 
elevation.  The  methods  of  building  these  ditches 
and  the  various  devices  for  controlling  the  water 
resemble  those  practised  in  the  arid  region. 

The  three  principal  tributaries  of  the  main  or 
trunk  stream  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  are  the 
Ohio,  the  upper  Mississippi,  and  the  Missouri.  Of 
these  the  Ohio  is  by  far  the  largest  in  volume, 
although  draining  the  smallest  area  of  country. 
Next  to  this  in  importance  is  the  upper  Mississippi, 
with  smaller  volume  of  flow  but  larger  catchment 
area ;  and  third,  the  Missouri,  with  extremely  large 
drainage  basin  but  relatively  small  flow.  The  dis- 
charge of  these  streams  illustrates  a  general  law, 
that,  in  going  from  a  region  of  heavy  rainfall  to 
one  of  light  precipitation,  there  is  a  rapidly  dimin- 
ishing quantity  of  water  flowing  in  the  streams,  or 
"run-off,"  this  decreasing  at  a  more  rapid  ratio 
than  does  the  rainfall.  There  is  proportionately 
less  run-off  from  the  land  as  the  annual  precipita- 
tion diminishes.  That  is,  on  the  Ohio  basin  there 
is  not  only  a  larger  annual  rainfall  and  snowfall, 
40  to  60  inches,  but  a  greater  portion  of  this  runs 
off  into  the  river  and  flows  downward  toward 
the  sea;  in  the  Missouri  basin  the  rainfall  is 


RUN-OFF.  59 

not  only  less,  averaging  10  to  20  inches,  but  the 
proportion  which  finds  its  way  into  the  stream  is 
diminished,  so  that  while  possibly  50  per  cent  of 
the  rainfall  in  the  Ohio  basin  appears  as  water 
in  the  stream,  probably  not  more  than  20  per  cent 
of  that  which  falls  upon  the  country  drained  by  the 
Missouri  is  contributed  to  the  river  (see  also  p.  26). 

This  law  of  diminution  of  the  ratio  of  run-off  to 
rainfall  is  further  illustrated  in  the  still  more  arid 
country  lying  to  the  southwest  of  the  Missouri. 
Here  is  a  country  where  the  precipitation  is  so 
small,  and  the  proportion  of  this  which  appears  in 
the  stream  so  insignificant,  that  the  rivers  have  not 
been  able  to  maintain  an  outlet  to  the  sea,  but  have 
shrunk,  and,  as  shown  on  the  small  map,  have  lost 
their  connection  with  the  ocean.  They  flow  from 
the  mountains  out  into  broad  valleys,  desert-like  in. 
character,  and  here  their  waters  either  are  lost  by 
evaporation  or  form  in  the  bottom  of  the  valley  a 
series  of  shallow  lakes,  marshes,  or  sinks.  This 
country  is  known  as  the  Great  Interior  Basin,  and 
has  within  its  borders  on  the  east  the  Great  Salt 
Lake  of  Utah,  the  saline  remnant  of  what  was 
formerly  a  large  fresh  water  lake  overflowing  into 
Snake  River.  West  of  this,  in  Nevada,  are  a 
number  of  fresh  or  slightly  brackish  lakes,  also 
shrunken  remnants  of  larger  bodies  of  water. 

Between  the  Great  Interior  Basin  and  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  Gulf  of  Mexico  drainage  is  the  area 
traversed  by  the  Colorado.  This  receives  its 


6o 


IRRIGATION. 


waters  from  the  Rocky,  Wasatch,  and  Uinta 
Mountains,  and  with  its  large  volume  has  been 
able  to  maintain  its  outlet  to  the  Gulf  of  Califor- 
nia. Its  energies  have,  however,  been  given  prin- 
cipally to  downward  cutting ;  and  the  river,  as  well 
as  its  principal  tributaries,  flows  for  the  greater 
part  of  its  course  through  gigantic  narrow  can- 


FlG.  15.  —  Larger  river  systems  of  the  United  States. 

yons  incised  into  the  hard  rocks  to  a  depth  of  five 
thousand  or  even  six  thousand  feet. 

North  of  the  Interior  Basin  is  the  Columbia 
River  system,  receiving  the  greater  part  of  its 
waters  from  regions  which  are  arid  or  partly  sub- 
humid.  The  principal  tributary  of  importance  in 
irrigation  is  the  Snake  River,  which  rises  adjacent 
to  the  Yellowstone  National  Park  and  flows  through 


WESTERN    RIVERS.  6l 

the  lava  fields  of  southern  Idaho.  In  these  it  has 
cut,  for  a  considerable  part  of  its  course,  deep,  nar- 
row canyons  somewhat  smaller  than,  but  compa- 
rable with,  those  of  the  Colorado  River. 

Below,  or  south  of,  the  Columbia,  are  numerous 
rivers,  mostly  short,  flowing  from  the  Cascade  and 
Coast  ranges  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  prin- 
cipal river  system  of  this  group  is  the  Sacramento, 
which,  with  its  equally  important  tributary,  the 
San  Joaquin,  drains  the  great  valley  of  Califor- 
nia, discharging  into  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco 
and  connecting  with  the  Pacific  Ocean  through 
the  Golden  Gate. 

It  is  not  the  main  or  trunk  streams  above  enu- 
merated which  are  of  chief  importance  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  arid  country,  but  rather  the 
smaller  tributaries,  most  of  which  cannot  be  ex- 
hibited on  the  map  of  the  United  States  unless  it 
is  made  of  almost  unwieldy  size.  The  main  streams 
are  too  large  to  be  controlled  by  ordinary  hydraulic 
works  for  irrigation  or  power,  and  in  their  lower 
courses  they  have,  as  a  rule,  attained  such  gentle 
grade  or  slope  that  they  have  little  industrial  value 
except  for  navigation. 

In  the  upper  course,  where  the  streams  are  small 
and  descend  rapidly  with  falls  and  cascades,  or 
lower,  where  the  swiftly  flowing  waters  rush  along 
over  beds  which  slope  at  the  rate  of  ten  to  twenty 
feet  per  mile  of  length,  it  is  possible  to  erect  struc- 
tures by  which  power  can  be  developed  or  the 


C>2  IRRIGATION. 

waters  taken  by  gravity  to  the  lower  lying  fertile 
lands.  Head  works  can  be  placed  on  the  banks 
of  these  streams,  or  dams  built  across  their  beds, 
raising  and  controlling  the  waters. 

PERIODIC    FLUCTUATIONS. 

If  the  rivers  coming  from  the  mountains  flowed 
at  a  uniform  rate  month  by  month  and  year  after 
year,  it  would  be  a  comparatively  simple  matter  to 
construct  hydraulic  works  ;  but  this  is  not  the  case. 
There  are  very  few  streams  which  do  not  fluctuate 
widely  in  their  flow,  delivering  during  certain  days 
or  weeks  volumes  of  water  many  times  the  aver- 
age flow,  or  falling  in  late  autumn  to  a  discharge 
so  small  that  the  stream  becomes  almost  worthless 
for  industrial  purposes.  Not  only  do  the  rivers 
change  from  season  to  season,  but  in  successive 
years  there  may  be  a  wide  variation.  Sometimes 
for  several  years  there  may  be  apparently  an  in- 
creasing volume  of  water  and  then  a  long  period  of 
drought  with  diminished  flow  for  nearly  a  decade. 
It  is  this  erratic  character  which  makes  difficult, 
expensive,  and  sometimes  profitless,  the  works  for 
utilizing  the  water  resources. 

In  the  humid  East  the  variations  in  river  flow, 
while  great,  are  not  usually  so  extreme  as  those  of 
the  arid  region.  The  typical  river  in  spring  flood 
increases  to  a  volume  several  times  that  of  the 
ordinary  flow,  then  gradually  diminishes  in  dis- 
charge, toward  the  time  of  summer  drought,  drop- 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  VIII. 


PERIODIC   FLUCTUATIONS.  63 

ping  to  a  third  or  a  quarter  or  even  less  of  the 
average,  to  rise  again  as  cold  weather  comes  on. 
In  contrast  to  this  may  be  taken,  for  example,  the 
Gila  River  of  southern  Arizona,  —  a  stream  of  great 
importance  in  the  development  of  the  rich  land  of 
that  territory,  but  one  offering  many  difficulties 
owing  to  its  erratic  character.  Frequently  its  flow 
for  months  at  a  time  will  practically  cease,  and 
the  water  stand  in  pools  along  its  channel.  Sud- 
denly a  violent  flood  occurs,  rising  to  a  discharge 
of  ten  thousand  or  more  cubic  feet  per  second, 
but,  in  a  day  or  two,  the  river  drops  to  a  small 
stream,  gradually  diminishing  until  nearly  dry. 
Sometimes  these  floods  follow  one  after  another, 
in  rapid  succession,  washing  down  immense  quan- 
tities of  gravel,  sand,  and  clay,  and  piling  these  up 
along  the  channel  or  overwhelming  and  washing 
out  the  dams  and  head  gates  built  for  irrigating 
purposes  and  the  bridges,  as  shown  on  PL  VIII. 

In  sharp  contrast  to  the  Gila  River  of  Arizona 
may  be  cited  the  Deschutes  River  of  central  Ore- 
gon. This,  although  within  the  borders  of  the 
arid  region,  has  a  wonderfully  uniform  flow,  not 
varying  in  height  more  than  a  foot  or  two  through- 
out the  year  and  from  one  year  to  another.  The 
cause  of  this  evenness  is  due  mainly  to  the  fact 
that  the  catchment  area  of  the  river  is  for  the 
most  part  covered  with  lava,  the  pervious  rock 
serving  as  a  reservoir  or  series  of  regulating  cham- 
bers for  the  stream  at  the  time  of  melting  snow 


64  IRRIGATION. 

or  after  a  storm.  The  excess  water  doubtless 
percolates  into  the  lava,  to  be  delivered  through 
many  tortuous  channels  into  the  stream  at  various 
points  along  its  course. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  ordinary  fluctuations 
of  a  river  of  the  arid  regions  there  is  given  here- 
with a  diagram  (Fig.  16)  showing  variations  in 
quantity  of  flow  of  the  Rio  Grande  at  Embudo, 
New  Mexico,  for  the  years  1896,  1897,  anc*  1898. 
This  exhibits  a  great  difference  in  volume  of  floods 
during  the  three  successive  years.  Beginning  in 
January,  1896,  the  flow  was  approximately  500  cu- 
bic feet  per  second,  this  continuing  with  slight  rise 
during  February,  and  on  the  last  of  March  reach- 
ing 2000  cubic  feet  per  second.  In  April  there 
were  fluctuations,  and  about  the  7th  of  May  the 
flood  culminated  at  3000  feet,  the  discharge  drop- 
ping off  during  May  and  June  to  the  ordinary 
summer  flow  of  about  200  second-feet,  interrupted 
occasionally,  as  shown  by  the  diagram,  by  small 
floods  of  short  duration. 

In  1897  the  discharge  in  January  and  February 
was  less  than  in  the  preceding  year,  and  the  amount 
gradually  increased,  culminating  during  the  latter 
part  of  May  in  a  volume  of  8745  second-feet, 
nearly  three  times  the  size  of  the  greatest  flood  of 
the  preceding  years.  During  June  the  river  con- 
tinued high,  with  large  flow,  not  reaching  low  water 
until  August.  There  was  a  second  flood  reaching 
2000  second-feet  in  the  middle  of  October,  this 


FlG.  16.  —  Diagram    of   daily   discharge    of   Rio    Grande   at  Embudo, 

New  Mexico,  for  1896,  1897,  and  1898. 
F 


66  IRRIGATION. 

gradually  decreasing  toward  winter.  In  1898  there 
were  three  well-marked  floods.  The  first  occurred 
in  the  latter  part  of  April,  the  water  dropping 
during  May  at  a  time  when  usually  there  is  the 
greatest  discharge.  In  June  there  was  another 
flood,  interrupted  by  a  short  decline,  and  in  July 
occurred  the  greatest  flood  of  the  year,  this  reach- 
ing about  4500  second-feet.  The  amount  rapidly 
declined  to  the  summer  flow,  and  there  were  no 
floods  during  the  remainder  of  the  year. 

The  average  flow  for  the  year  1896  was  645 
second-feet;  for  1897,  1497  second-feet;  and  for 
1898,  1157  second-feet.  In  other  words,  during 
1897  the  river  discharged  more  than  twice  as  much 
as  in  1896.  It  is  not  unusual  for  a  stream  to  deliver 
two,  three,  or  even  four  times  as  much  in  one  year 
as  in  the  preceding  or  succeeding  year.  These 
facts  as  to  the  quantity  of  water  and  the  range 
of  fluctuations  are  essential  in  any  discussion  of 
irrigation,  and  particularly  of  the  extent  to  which 
the  arid  lands  can  be  reclaimed. 

This  diagram  of  the  Rio  Grande  is  typical  of 
drawings  which  could  be  made  for  most  of  the 
rivers  of  the  arid  region.  In  nearly  all  cases  they 
have  a  well-marked  period  of  flood  from  April  to 
June,  during  which  time  the  greater  part  of  the 
water  for  the  year  flows  away.  This  is  the  time 
of  planting  and  germinating  seeds,  and  there  is 
usually  water  in  abundance  for  thoroughly  wetting 
the  ground.  Later  in  the  year,  however,  when  the 


FLUCTUATIONS   OF    FLOWS.  67 

crops  are  beginning  to  mature,  the  available  supply 
for  irrigation  is  greatly  reduced,  and  it  is  no  longer 
possible  to  supply  the  large  areas  planted  in  the 
spring. 

In  looking  at  this  diagram  the  idea  at  once 
occurs  that  it  should  be  a  simple  matter  to  hold 
over  some  of  the  excess  water  of  the  spring,  dimin- 
ishing the  height  of  the  floods,  and  to  turn  this 
back  into  the  streams  to  replenish,  or  fill  up,  the 
depressions  shown  in  the  diagram ;  in  other  words, 
to  regulate  the  discharge  to  a  more  uniform  condi- 
tion, changing  the  diagram  from  one  of  erratic 
points  to  a  uniform  curve. 

For  comparison  with  other  rivers,  and  especially 
with  eastern  conditions,  a  diagram  (Fig.  17)  of  the 
flow  of  Susquehanna  River  at  Harrisburg,  Pennsyl- 
vania, for  the  same  years  is  given.  This  carries  a 
far  greater  volume  of  water,  as  indicated  by  the 
figures  on  the  side  of  the  diagram.  The  most 
striking  feature  is  the  large  number  of  the  floods, 
the  short  period  of  duration  of  each  of  these,  and 
their  irregularity  as  regards  time  of  year.  Most 
of  them  occur  in  the  early  spring  or  late  fall, 
June,  July,  August,  and  September  being  times 
of  low  water. 

Measurements  of  many  important  streams  of  the 
United  States  have  been  made,  and  diagrams  simi- 
lar to  the  above  constructed,  illustrating  this  varia- 
tion in  river  flow.  They  are,  for  the  most  part, 
similar  to  the  figures  given,  but  careful  comparison 


68 


IRRIGATION. 


Fl<;.  17. —  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  Susquehanna  River  at  Harris 
burg,  Pennsylvania,  for  1896,  1897,  and  1898. 


CLIMATIC  CYCLES.  69 

brings  out  individual  peculiarities  of  each  river, 
dependent  upon  topographic  and  climatic  condi- 
tions. The  study  of  a  series  of  such  diagrams 
brings  out  clearly  the  fact  that  in  the  flow  of 
streams,  as  in  the  quantity  of  rainfall,  there  are 
often  cycles  of  irregular  periods  during  which  the 
quantity  increases  with  more  or  less  persistency, 
and  then  decreases  for  a  number  of  years  in  suc- 
cession. The  attempt  has  been  made  to  ascertain 
whether  there  is  any  definite  periodicity  for  these 
cycles,  and  some  investigators  have  occasionally 
succeeded  in  demonstrating,  to  their  own  satisfac- 
tion at  least,  that  there  is  a  regularity,  but  unfortu- 
nately no  two  students  are  as  yet  agreed  upon  the 
length  of  time  of  these.  The  cycles,  if  they  may 
be  so  termed,  are  probably  not  coincident  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  United  States.  The  rivers  of 
California  may  be  very  low  for  a  series  of  years, 
while  during  the  same  period  those  of  Texas  or 
the  Atlantic  coast  may  have  more  than  a  normal 
discharge. 

In  what  has  been  above  stated,  the  assumption 
has  been  made  that  there  are  no  large  lakes  along 
the  course  of  the  rivers  under  discussion.  In  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  United  States,  however,  particu- 
larly in  glaciated  portions  embracing  New  England 
and  states  adjacent,  the  courses  of  the  streams 
have  been  disturbed  by  the  incursion  of  the  ice 
sheet  and  by  the  material  dropped  in  its  retreat. 
The  boulders,  gravels,  and  clays,  irregularly  de- 


70  IRRIGATION. 

posited,  have  produced  numerous  lakes  which  serve 
to  retain,  for  a  time  at  least,  the  precipitation 
upon  the  surface,  holding  back  the  floods  and  al- 
lowing the  water  to  escape  with  comparative  uni- 
formity, thus  giving  rise  to  rivers  of  steady  flow. 
This  condition  is  limited  to  a  relatively  small  part 
of  the  country,  but  the  great  development  of  water 
resources  which  must  take  place  within  the  arid 
region  will  first  be  patterned  largely  after  the 
results  attained  by  nature.  The  upper  courses  of 
the  streams  must  be  blocked  by  suitably  con- 
structed dams,  forming  lakes  to  hold  the  floods 
and  to  regulate  the  flow  throughout  the  season 
when  water  is  needed. 

The  fluctuations  which  have  taken  place  in  the 
volume  of  different  rivers  from  season  to  season 
and  from  year  to  year  are  believed  to  have  a 
certain  range,  which  can  be  ascertained  by  meas- 
urements carried  on  through  a  number  of  years  in 
succession.  The  results  at  present  obtained  often 
appear  to  indicate  that  the  rivers  are  steadily  di- 
minishing in  volume,  and  the  question  is  fre- 
quently asked  whether  the  rivers  are  not  drying 
up.  It  has  been  argued  that,  in  the  western 
part  of  the  country  at  least,  there  is  a  progres- 
sive desiccation,  and  that,  as  time  goes  on,  less 
and  less  water  will  be  available.  From  geological 
evidence  it  is  certain  that  in  comparatively  recent 
times,  as  measured  by  the  age  of  the  rocks,  the 
climate  of  the  West  was  far  more  humid.  On  the 


PERMANENCE   OF   RIVERS.  71 

other  hand,  records  of  weather  conditions  obtained 
for  various  parts  of  the  United  States  and  for 
European  countries,  some  of  these  extending  over 
a  period  of  one  hundred  years  or  more,  lead  us  to 
believe  that  the  present  climate  is  permanent  as 
regards  historical  periods.  In  other  words,  for  the 
few  hundred  or  thousand  years  that  men  have 
made  observations  or  records,  there  has  been  no  de- 
cided and  permanent  change  in  climate ;  although 
for  the  millions  of  years  for  which  geological  data 
are  available,  there  are  found  to  be  decided  dif- 
ferences. 

From  these  and  other  considerations  it  is  safe 
to  assume,  as  in  the  case  of  the  rainfall,  that  the 
quantity  of  water  in  the  rivers  of  the  country  is 
not  permanently  increasing  or  diminishing.  It 
is  evident,  however,  that  modifications  are  taking 
place  in  their  behavior,  especially  as  regards  the 
amount  and  duration  of  floods  and  of  low  water. 
The  changes  introduced  incident  to  civilization,  — 
the  making  of  roads  and  trails,  which  act  as  con- 
duits or  ditches,  the  draining  of  swampy  places, 
the  cutting  of  the  trees,  the  burning  of  forests  and 
underbrush,  —  all  exert  a  more  or  less  direct  in- 
fluence upon  the  rapidity  with  which  water  runs 
off  the  ground  after  a  rain  and  finds  its  way  into 
the  streams.  Thus  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
springs  and  smaller  creeks  at  least  have  been  de- 
stroyed, or  their  flow  greatly  modified. 


/2  IRRIGATION. 

SEEPAGE. 

The  streams  within  the  arid  regions  of  the 
United  States,  having  their  sources  amid  the  high, 
rocky,  or  forest-clad  slopes  of  the  mountains,  de- 
scend rapidly  toward  the  fertile  plains,  which  often 
stretch  far  out  to  the  horizon.  Their  downward 
course  is  seldom  an  uninterrupted  one.  Usually 
at  one  point  or  another  they  meander  for  a  time 
through  upper  valleys  or  parks,  whose  summer 
verdure  is  in  striking  contrast  to  the  sunburned 
plains  beneath.  Leaving  these,  the  streams  enter 
rocky  denies  or  narrow  canyons,  to  again  emerge 
upon  a  narrow  lower  valley ;  and,  receiving  tribu- 
taries on  the  way,  they  finally  pass  through  the 
foothill  regions  and  out  upon  the  vast  fertile  plains. 
At  about  this  point  a  gradual  transition  takes 
place  in  the  character  of  the  channel,  which,  from 
a  rocky,  torrential,  or  gravelly  stream-bed  with 
rapid  fall,  broadens  into  a  shallow,  shifting,  sandy 
channel,  in  which  the  stream,  dividing  and  sub- 
dividing in  times  of  low  water,  finally,  by  imper- 
ceptible degrees,  loses  itself.  In  times  of  flood 
the  water  may  fill  the  broad  sandy  waste,  and  after 
a  few  days  force  its  way  far  out  to  join  some  lake, 
or  finally  reach  some  perennial  stream  making  its 
way  to  the  ocean. 

In  its  course  the  water  of  the  stream  may  be 
diverted  at  any  point.  It  may  be  taken  out  in  the 
upper  parks  or  valleys  high  among  the  mountain 


SEEPAGE.  73 

peaks,  and  used  during  the  spring  or  summer  to 
increase  the  growth  of  the  forage  plants ;  or  it 
may  be  utilized  in  the  lower  valleys  among  the 
foothills,  or  out  upon  the  margin  of  the  plain,  or 
upon  the  lower  plain  itself.  If  the  stream  chan- 
nel were  like  an  iron  pipe  or  conduit,  in  which  the 
water,  once  received,  must  pass  along  until  dis- 
charged into  some  branch  or  at  the  lower  end,  the 
estimation  of  water  supply  would  be  comparatively 
simple.  It  would  be  assumed  that  whatever  water 
came  into  the  pipe  at  any  point  must  come  out  at 
some  other ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  quantity 
to  be  dealt  with  would  be  constant ;  and  our  ac- 
count books  would  balance.  This,  however,  is  not 
the  case  in  nature. 

If  among  the  mountains  we  measure  all  the  vis- 
ible affluents  of  a  stream,  add  these  together,  and 
then  measure  the  volume  of  the  main  stream  a 
little  distance  below,  we  shall  generally  find  that 
the  aggregate  volume  is  greater  than  the  sum  of 
the  visible  tributaries.  Water  has  come  in  im- 
perceptibly, this  action  continuing  through  a  great 
part  of  the  year,  —  after  the  frost  has  left  the 
ground  and  until  late  summer.  Going  down-stream 
to  the  edge  of  the  plain,  there  will  be  found,  how- 
ever, a  different  condition  of  affairs.  If  at  the 
edge  of  the  foothills  we  measure  all  of  the  creeks, 
add  the  results  together,  and  then  measure  the 
main  stream  a  few  miles  below,  it  will  usually  be 
found  that  this  latter  volume  is  less  than  the  sum 


74  IRRIGATION. 

of  the  various  tributaries.  This  decrease  will  be 
found  to  continue  at  a  greater  or  less  rate,  with 
perhaps  an  occasional  increase. 

This  irregularity  in  the  behavior  of  a  stream, 
increasing  and  decreasing  without  visible  cause,  is 
explained  by  what  is  commonly  known  as  seepage 
or  percolation.  In  the  more  elevated  portions  of 
the  basin,  with  cooler  climates  and  larger  water 
supply,  the  rocks,  more  or  less  saturated  by  the 
rains  and  melting  snows,  yield  their  waters  to 
the  streams ;  but  in  the  lower  and  dryer  part  of 
the  basin,  where  the  rocks  or  soils  are  loose  or 
unconsolidated,  they  receive  and  conduct  away 
some  of  the  river  water,  until  all  may  be  taken, 
transmitted  laterally,  and  given  out  imperceptibly 
to  the  dry  air.  Direct  evaporation  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  flowing  stream  also  aids  seepage  in 
robbing  the  rivers  in  their  lower  courses. 

Under  natural  conditions  a  river  gradually  in- 
creases in  volume,  both  by  tributary  surface  streams 
and  by  percolation,  to  a  certain  point,  and  then  grad- 
ually loses  some  of  its  volume  by  imperceptible  de- 
grees. This  point  is  usually  at  or  near  the  lower 
foothill  region,  and  in  a  general  way  corresponds 
with  the  place  where,  from  slope  of  channel  and 
other  features,  canals  and  ditches  can  be  most 
economically  constructed  to  carry  water  out  to  the 
edge  of  the  lower  plain. 

This  point  of  maximum  available  flow  is  often 
coincident  with  other  favorable  features,  as  regards 


POINTS   OF   GREATEST    FLOW.  75 

both  climate  and  soil.  Being  protected  by  the  foot- 
hills, winds  are  not  so  severe,  and  frosts  do  not 
come  so  early  in  the  fall  nor  linger  so  late  in  the 
spring.  This  part  of  the  river  basin  is  thus  pecul- 
iarly favored  for  successful  agriculture  by  irriga- 
tion, and  if  physical  conditions  alone  had  been 
considered,  a  concentration  of  efforts  at  such  places 
would  have  resulted  in  the  largest  and  best  utiliza- 
tion of  the  public  lands.  The  progress  of  settle- 
ment has,  however,  not  followed  any  systematic 
course  tending  to  make  the  largest  amount  of  land 
available  for  settlement ;  and  we  now  find  that  on 
each  stream  the  best  lands  and  the  best  opportu- 
nities for  completely  utilizing  the  water  have  some- 
times been  neglected  through  lack  of  knowledge 
or  experience  on  the  part  of  pioneers. 

A  prospector,  weary  with  the  search  for  precious 
minerals ;  a  cattleman,  choosing  a  home  ranch  ;  or 
a  pioneer  farmer,  seeking  a  location  with  ample 
space  for  his  growing  family,  has  picked  out  what 
seemed  to  him  at  the  time  the  most  desirable  spot, 
and,  by  his  own  efforts,  or  aided  perhaps  by  neigh- 
bors, has  dug  a  small  ditch  where  the  ground  was 
most  easily  worked  by  simple  farm  tools.  Above 
or  below,  another  ditch  has  been  taken  out  by  later 
comers,  attracted  by  the  success  of  the  first  man, 
and  year  by  year,  as  more  people  settled  along  the 
stream,  new  ditches  have  been  dug  and  old  ones 
have  been  enlarged. 

The  older  ditches  have  usually  had  an  abundant 


76  IRRIGATION. 

supply,  and  their  owners  have  become  accustomed 
to  use  water  freely,  saturating  the  ground  and  fill- 
ing the  subsoil.  The  excess  water,  slowly  perco- 
lating downward  and  outward,  progresses  toward 
the  lowest  point,  and  finally  reaches  daylight  on 
the  lowlands  (PL  IX).  The  rate  of  movement  is 
extremely  slow,  being  usually  only  a  few  inches  a 
day.  Weeks,  months,  or  even  years  may  be  re- 
quired for  the  passage  of  any  particular  drop  of 
water  from  the  irrigated  field  through  the  ground 
and  out  into  the  river  bed,  so  that  the  increase  of 
stream  flow  may  not  be  recognized  for  several 
years  after  irrigation  has  been  introduced.  When 
once  an  extensive  area  has  been  thoroughly  satu- 
rated, the  seepage  may  continue  for  a  considerable 
period.  This  effect  of  irrigation  in  increasing  the 
natural  seepage  is  now  well  recognized,  and  it  is 
often  esteemed  a  benefit  to  lower  portions  of  a 
valley  to  have  water  applied  to  lands  higher  up, 
since  by  so  doing  the  amount  available  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  crop  season  for  the  lower  land  is  in- 
creased. On  the  other  hand,  as  discussed  on  page 
226,  the  seepage  may  grow  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
become  a  source  of  annoyance  and  even  of  injury. 
To  illustrate  the  effect  of  seepage,  an  example 
may  be  taken  of  a  typical  catchment  basin,  in  which 
there  is  an  upper  valley,  a  long  middle  or  lower 
valley,  and  beyond  this  the  broad  expanse  of  margin 
of  the  plain.  The  inhabitants  of  the  highest  val- 
ley, by  diverting  the  spring  floods  to  the  fields,  and 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  IX. 


A.      SEEPAGE    WATER    APPEARING    ON    LAND    FORMERLY    DRY, 
NEAR   RINCON,   CALIFORNIA. 


B.     DREDGE  CUTTING  CANAL  TO   RECEIVE  SEEPAGE  WATER. 


EFFECTS   OF   SEEPAGE.  77 

distributing  these  over  pasture  or  hay  lands,  put 
to  beneficial  use  waters  which  otherwise  would  be 
wasted,  since  at  that  season  there  is  an  excess  all 
along  the  stream.  A  part  of  the  water  thus  used 
percolates  back  to  the  stream  in  the  lower  end  of 
this  valley,  and  adds  to  the  volume  available  for  the 
irrigators  in  the  next  or  middle  valley.  If,  how- 
ever, this  utilization  in  the  highest  valley  continues 
throughout  the  summer,  when  the  heat  and  conse- 
quent evaporation  are  greater,  it  may  be  possible  to 
divert  all  of  the  flowing  water  from  the  stream,  by 
spreading  it  upon  the  fields,  and  leave  the  channel 
completely  dry  save  for  the  seepage,  which  con- 
tinues to  flow.  Under  this  condition  the  inhabitants 
of  the  middle  valley  are  deprived  of  the  natural 
flow  of  the  stream,  and  have  only  the  seepage 
water,  instead  of  the  ordinary  discharge  increased 
by  seepage. 

There  is  thus  a  time  of  year,  shortly  after  the 
occurrence  of  the  spring  floods,  when  continued 
utilization  of  the  waters  in  the  highest  valley  be- 
comes, not  a  benefit,  but  an  injury,  to  the  people 
below.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  utilization 
of  the  water  in  the  middle  valley.  The  extrava- 
gant use  of  the  water  early  in  the  year  in  the 
middle  valley  may  be  of  advantage  to  those  below, 
in  adding  to  the  summer  flow  through  seepage  ; 
but  further  utilization,  in  taking  all  of  the  water 
out  of  the  stream,  interferes  greatly  with  the  supply 
at  points  farther  down-stream. 


/8  IRRIGATION. 

There  is  for  every  point  along  a  river  of  any 
considerable  length  a  time  when  the  diversion  of 
the  water  at  points  far  above  becomes,  not  a  bless- 
ing, but  a  curse.  This  time  varies,  not  only  with 
the  amount  of  water  in  the  stream  and  the  amount 
taken  out,  but  also  with  the  weather  conditions, 
a  dry  year  resulting  in  diminished  seepage  and 
earlier  passing  of  the  critical  point,  and  a  cool 
year  in  retardation  of  the  time  when  diversions 
above  become  an  injury.  This  date,  as  a  rule, 
gradually  grows  earlier  and  earlier  as  years  go  by, 
for  with  the  usual  extension  of  irrigating  systems 
comes  greater  economy  in  the  use  of  water,  and 
with  greater  economy  must  be  less  seepage.  With 
increased  irrigated  area  a  smaller  amount  of  water 
is  put  upon  each  acre  of  the  fields,  and  finally  only 
enough  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  plants.  When 
this  point  is  reached,  there  should  be  theoretically 
no  artificial  seepage,  and  then  no  benefit  to  points 
below.  This,  however,  is  an  extreme  condition 
rarely  realized. 

The  necessity  of  ascertaining,  not  only  the  water 
supply,  but  also  the  modifications  due  to  artificial 
diversion  of  the  water,  is  emphasized  by  considera- 
tion of  the  prevalent  customs  and  usual  legislation 
regarding  water  rights.  As  a  rule,  throughout  the 
arid  region,  priority  of  utilization  carries  with  it 
the  first  right  to  continued  employment.  The  man 
who  along  the  course  of  the  stream  first  took  out 
water  and  cultivated  a  given  piece  of  land,  is,  by 


SEEPAGE   AFFECTING   PRIORITIES.  79 

custom  and  law  (see  p.  291),  entitled  to  take  out  the 
same  quantity  of  water  to  this  land,  regardless  of 
his  neighbors.  The  man  who  came  second,  whether 
by  a  day  or  by  a  generation,  has  a  secondary  right, 
and  can  use  forever  the  amount  of  water  originally 
diverted  and  put  upon  the  cultivated  soil,  provided 
there  is  sufficient  to  supply  the  first  comer.  The 
man  who  is  third  in  point  of  time  can  utilize  his  share 
only  after  the  first  and  second  men  have  had  their 
prior  claims  satisfied  ;  and  so  on  down  the  list,  the 
last  comer  being  compelled,  if  necessary,  to  leave 
the  water  untouched  until  all  have  had  the  exact 
quantity  legally  claimed.  By  increasing  or  dimin- 
ishing the  flow  of  a  stream  at  any  point  through 
seepage  the  values  of  farm  lands  may  be  greatly 
affected. 

IMPORTANCE    OF    STREAM    MEASUREMENT. 

The  above  discussion  of  one  of  the  problems  of 
water  distribution  illustrates  the  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  the  best  development  of  the  arid  lands, 
and  shows  the  necessity  of  thorough  and  accurate 
knowledge  of  all  of  the  conditions.  The  matter  is 
further  complicated  by  the  manner  in  which  politi- 
cal divisions  have  been  drawn,  regardless  of  nat- 
ural boundaries.  In  nearly  all  cases  the  more 
important  streams  flow  through  several  counties, 
each  of  which  has  its  own  peculiar  custom  in  re- 
gard to  the  distribution  of  water,  and  in  which  the 
inhabitants  and  officials  are  somewhat  jealous  of 


80  IRRIGATION. 

other  counties,  or  at  least  are  not  inclined  to  work 
in  harmony  with  them.  The  most  difficult  case, 
however,  is  where  state  lines  intersect  drainage 
basins,  as  it  is  then  almost  impossible  to  secure 
any  consideration  by  one  state  of  the  rights  of 
people  lower  down  the  stream  in  another  state. 
Each  year  these  interstate  questions  are  becoming 
more  and  more  complicated,  and  the  demand  for 
laws  or  regulations  which  shall  impartially  settle 
disputes  is  more  urgent. 

There  are  also  important  streams,  such  as  the 
Rio  Grande,  which  flow  along  or  across  the 
borders  of  the  republic  and  give  rise  to  interna- 
tional complications  similar  in  many  respects  to 
the  interstate  questions.  While  in  each  case  there 
is  necessity  for  accurate  and  detailed  information 
regarding  local  conditions,  yet  it  should  be  possi- 
ble to  determine  some  broad  principles  applicable 
to  all.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  water  sup- 
ply, its  fluctuations  and  limitations,  is  therefore 
essential,  in  whatever  aspect  the  future  of  the 
public  lands  may  be  considered  ;  but  the  difficulty 
of  obtaining  systematic  knowledge  can  best  be  ap- 
preciated when  the  vast  extent  and  wide  distri- 
bution of  the  national  domain  are  considered. 

The  principal  streams  of  the  arid  region  have 
been  measured  by  the  Division  of  Hydrography 
of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  as  part  of 
its  investigation  of  the  extent  to  which  the  arid 
lands  can  be  reclaimed  by  irrigation.  This  forms 


IMPORTANCE  OF  STREAM  MEASUREMENTS.      8 1 

a  portion  of  the  general  study  of  the  water  re- 
sources of  the  United  States,  and  the  oppor- 
tunities for  utilizing  these  in  power  and  other 
industrial  purposes,  as  well  as  in  agriculture.  The 
flow  of  rivers  has  been  systematically  observed  in 
various  sections  of  the  United  States,  to  obtain 
facts  for  use  in  considerations  of  problems  relating 
in  the  East  mainly  to  power  development,  and  in 
the  West  to  irrigation. 

By  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  vacant  public 
lands  —  over  95  per  cent  —  is  classed  as  arid  or 
semiarid  in  character  and,  as  shown  in  earlier 
pages,  depends  for  its  future  value  not  so  much 
upon  altitude,  mineral  contents,  or  geological  struc- 
ture as  upon  the  presence  or  absence  of  water. 
Thus  it  is  that  the  question  of  water  supply,  its 
quantity,  quality,  and  availability,  is  one  upon  which 
turns  the  future  of  the  national  domain.  When 
the  essential  facts  concerning  the  water  are  clearly 
known,  it  will  be  possible  to  determine  upon  the 
best  legislation  for  the  reclamation  of  portions  of 
this  vast  area,  and  the  dedication  of  other  portions 
to  various  purposes,  such  as  grazing  and  woodland. 

It  is  a  fact  now  generally  recognized  that,  owing 
to  the  scarcity  of  water,  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  public  domain  can  be  reclaimed  for  agriculture  ; 
but  this  amount,  though  small  when  compared  with 
the  whole  area,  is  in  the  aggregate  larger  than  the 
territorial  extent  of  some  of  the  states,  and  will 
sustain  a  population  of  millions.  After  all  of  the 


82  IRRIGATION. 

land  that  the  water  will  cover  has  been  utilized  for 
agriculture  by  means  of  irrigation,  there  will  still 
remain  hundreds  of  millions  of  acres  of  rich  land 
suitable  for  grazing  and  for  the  growth  of  forest 
products. 

METHODS    OF    STREAM    MEASUREMENT. 

The  operations  of  measuring  the  volume  of  a 
flowing  stream,  although  not  complicated,  possess 
an  element  of  mystery  to  the  average  citizen, 
largely  because  he  has  not  been  accustomed  to 
consider  fluctuating  quantities.  It  is  possible  to 
form  a  very  definite  conception  of  the  amount  of 
water  standing  in  a  pond  or  reservoir,  but  in  the 
case  of  a  stream  the  quantities  considered  are  of 
water  in  motion,  and  therefore  another  and  some- 
what novel  element  enters,  that  of  time.  The 
statement  of  the  quantity  of  water  in  a  stream  is 
dependent  upon  the  time  considered,  and  therefore 
it  is  necessary  as  a  first  step  to  take  some  unit. 
This  is  usually  the  second,  although  the  minute  is 
occasionally  used. 

In  the  United  States  the  unit  of  quantity  in 
water  measurement  is  the  cubic  foot,  although  the 
gallon  is  largely  employed  by  engineers  and  others 
having  to  do  with  city  waterworks.  The  objections 
to  the  gallon  are  that  there  are  several  gallons  of 
different  size,  and  that  the  quantity  is  so  small  that 
figures  of  stream  flow  run  up  into  inconveniently 
large  numbers.  The  gallon  in  customary  use  is 


UNITS   OF   MEASUREMENT.  83 

equivalent  to  231  cubic  inches,  or  7.48  gallons 
make  i  cubic  foot. 

There  are  other  units  frequently  employed  in 
statements  of  the  amount  of  water,  the  most  im- 
portant being  the  acre-foot.  This  is  used  particu- 
larly with  reference  to  waters  stored  in  reservoirs. 
An  acre-foot  of  water  is  the  amount  which  would 
cover  one  acre,  or  43,560  square  feet,  to  a  depth  of 
one  foot;  or,  in  short,  43, 560  cubic  feet,  or  325,851 
gallons.  One  cubic  foot  per  second  flowing  for 
twenty-four  hours  will  cover  an  acre  to  a  depth  of 
1.98  feet.  It  is  customary  in  round  numbers  to 
state  that  a  cubic  foot  per  second  for  a  day  is  equiv- 
alent to  2  acre-feet.  The  contents  of  reservoirs 
built  for  city  water  supply  are  usually  stated  in 
millions  of  gallons,  while  those  for  irrigation  are 
almost  always  given  in  acre-feet.  It  is  convenient 
to  remember  that  1,000,000  gallons  equal  a  trifle 
more  than  3  acre-feet  (3.069). 

If  we  imagine  a  small  stream  filling  a  rectangu- 
lar conduit  i  foot  wide  and  I  foot  deep,  we  have  a 
stream  whose  sectional  area  is  i  square  foot. 
The  volume  of  this  stream  will  vary  in  proportion 
to  the  speed  with  which  the  water  flows  through 
the  conduit.  This  speed  is  most  conveniently  ex- 
pressed, as  above  noted,  in  the  rate  per  second,  the 
foot  being  used  as  the  unit  of  distance.  If,  for  ex- 
ample, the  water  is  moving  at  the  speed  of  i  foot 
per  second,  it  follows  that  there  is  a  flow  of  a  vol- 
ume of  i  cubic  foot  per  second.  If  the  water  is 


84  IRRIGATION. 

moving  at  a  higher  speed,  as  for  example  5  linear 
feet  per  second,  the  volume  will  be  5  cubic  feet  per 
second.  In  the  same  way,  if  the  conduit  is  5  feet 
wide  and  20  feet  deep,  the  areal  section  is  100 
square  feet,  and  if  the  average  flow  is  2  feet 
per  second,  the  total  discharge  will  be  200  cubic 
feet  per  second.  This  expression,  "  cubic  feet  per 
second,"  is  frequently  abbreviated  to  "  second-feet." 

From  what  has  been  above  stated,  it  is  apparent 
that  the  measurement  of  the  flow  of  a  stream  con- 
sists in  obtaining  the  width,  depth,  and  velocity. 
If  these  were  perfectly  definite  or  fixed  quantities, 
the  operation  would  be  extremely  simple ;  but  as 
streams  occur  in  nature,  these  quantities  are  not 
always  precisely  bounded,  and  considerable  judg- 
ment is  required  in  assuming  the  limiting  points. 
For  example,  the  measurement  of  the  width  of  a 
stream  necessitates  an  assumption  as  to  the  actual 
point  or  line  where  the  moving  water  ends  and  the 
bank  begins.  As  the  natural  banks  are  always 
irregular,  the  width  of  a  stream  may  vary  consider- 
ably in  going  short  distances.  The  shores  are 
usually  shallow,  and  there  are  often  little  areas  of 
stagnant  water,  or  even  returning  currents  creeping 
along  the  shore,  so  that  it  becomes  necessary  to 
decide  from  inspection  where  the  shores  may  be 
said  to  begin  and  end  at  the  particular  locality 
where  the  measurements  are  made. 

The  depth  of  a  stream  is  also  a  variable  quan- 
tity. Outward  from  the  shore  the  depth  gradually 


DEPTH  AND  WIDTH  OF  STREAM.     85 

increases  toward  the  centre,  and  then  shallows 
toward  the  farther  bank.  Often  there  are  bars 
or  deposits  of  sand,  gravel,  and  boulders,  making 
the  bottom  irregular,  so  that  a  sounding  pole  or 
line  may  find  a  place  on  top  of  a  stone  or  by  its 
side,  making  considerable  difference  in  the  reading 
of  the  depth.  It  is  thus  necessary  to  make  a  num- 
ber of  measurements  of  depth  by  soundings  across 
the  stream,  taking  these  at  intervals  of  I  foot,  5 
feet,  10  feet,  or  more,  according  to  the  width  of  the 
stream  and  the  irregularity  of  the  bottom. 

If  the  water  were  perfectly  still  it  would  be  an 
easy  matter  to  read  the  distance  from  the  bottom 
to  the  top,  but  with  most  streams  there  are  small 
ripples  or  waves  produced  by  the  wind  and  by  the 
flowing  water,  so  that  in  ascertaining  the  depth 
allowance  must  be  made  for  the  wave  motion  as 
the  water  rises  and  falls  on  the  measuring  pole. 
In  very  careful  determinations  there  are  also  found 
to  be  fluctuations  of  the  height  of  the  water  due  to 
the  rhythmic  flow,  the  surface  slowly  rising  and  fall- 
ing through  periods  of  from  one  to  two  minutes  or 
more.  This  slow  oscillation  can  be  noted  by  any 
simple  device  which  stills  the  waves ;  for  example, 
by  observing  the  water  in  a  pipe  whose  lower  part 
beneath  the  water  is  perforated. 

These  measurements  of  the  width  and  of  the 
depth  of  a  stream  can  be  readily  made  by  meas- 
uring lines  or  sticks  ;  but  the  third  factor  —  that  of 
speed  —  requires  additional  apparatus,  as  the  ele- 


86  IRRIGATION. 

ment  of  time  must  be  noted.  The  stream  does  not 
move  like  a  train  of  cars  or  a  rigid  bar,  all  portions 
travelling  at  the  same  rate.  On  the  contrary,  each 
particle  moves  along  a  path  of  its  own,  not  neces- 
sarily parallel  with  the  banks,  but  usually  with 
more  or  less  circular  or  gyratory  motion.  In  the 
centre  of  the  stream,  or  where  the  water  is  deep- 
est, it  can  be  readily  seen  by  the  eye  that  the  water 
is  moving  faster  than  near  the  shore.  The  place 
of  greatest  motion  is  about  one-third  of  the  distance 
beneath  the  surface,  this  being  the  locality  where 
the  water  io  least  impeded  by  friction.  Toward 
the  sides  and  bottom  the  rate  of  flow  gradually 
diminishes,  the  velocity  being  governed  by  the 
roughness  of  the  surface,  boulders  or  projections 
causing  eddies  and  setting  up  disturbances  which 
retard  the  forward  motion. 

Floats. 

The  simplest  way  of  obtaining  the  rate  of  flow 
is  by  means  of  small  objects  floating  upon  the  sur- 
face. For  example,  a  path  100  feet  in  length  can 
be  laid  off  along  the  side  of  a  stream,  each  end  of 
the  path  or  course  being  marked  by  a  stake.  A 
chip  can  be  thrown  into  the  stream  above  the 
upper  stake  and  the  exact  second  noted  when  it 
passes  this  point,  and  also  when  it  passes  the  lower 
point  ioo  feet  below.  If  20  seconds  were  required, 
the  velocity  of  the  chip  was  5  feet  per  second. 
If  the  first  chip  or  float  followed  near  the  centre 


FLOAT   MEASUREMENTS.  87 

of  the  stream,  other  floats  can  be  tossed  in  so  that 
they  will  travel  in  lines  intermediate  between  the 
centre  and  the  banks.  These  will  move  at  the  rate 
of  4  feet  a  second,  3  feet  a  second,  and  so  on.  If 
they  are  well  distributed  across  the  stream,  the 
average  will  be  approximately  the  surface  flow, 
which  for  convenience  may  be  taken  as  3  feet  per 
second. 

The  entire  stream  is  not  flowing  as  rapidly  as 
the  surface,  and  it  is  usually  assumed  that  the 
water  as  a  whole  moves  at  about  0.9  the  average 
surface  velocity.  It  is  necessary  therefore  to  mul- 
tiply the  3  feet  per  second  surface  flow  by  0.9,  giv- 
ing an  average  rate  of  flow  for  the  whole  stream 
of  2.7  feet  per  second.  If  we  have  found  that  the 
width  is  20  feet,  the  average  depth  4  feet,  the  area 
of  cross-section  is  80  square  feet,  and  the  rate  of 
flow,  2.7  feet  per  second,  gives  a  volume  of  216 
second-feet. 

In  making  this  simple  computation  it  is  usually 
desirable  to  take  the  precaution  of  dividing  the 
stream,  if  of  considerable  width,  into  several  sec- 
tions lying  side  by  side,  and  considering  each  of 
these  as  independent,  for  the  reason  that  the  sides 
of  the  stream,  where  the  depth  is  less,  have  the 
least  velocity,  and  the  centre  of  the  stream  usually 
has  the  greatest  velocity.  For  accuracy  in  com- 
putation the  shallowest  cross-section,  say  10  feet  in 
width,  should  be  multiplied  by  its  velocity,  and  the 
deepest  cross-section,  also  of  a  uniform  width  of 


88 


IRRIGATION. 


10  feet,  multiplied  by  its  velocity ;  and  so  on  with 
each  portion  of  the  stream.  This  is  because  of 
the  fact  that  the  total  area  multiplied  by  the 


FK;.  18.  —  Double  or  submerged  float. 

average  velocity  does  not  give   the   same   result 
as  obtained  by  the  method  just  described. 

This  method  of   obtaining  the  discharge  of  a 
stream  by  means  of  floats  can  be  employed  by  any 


SUBMERGED   FLOATS.  89 

person  of  fair  skill  and  judgment,  and  will  yield 
results  suitable  for  most  practical  purposes.  It  is 
susceptible  of  refinement  in  many  ways.  For  ex- 
ample, if  the  stream  is  wide,  stakes  can  be  set  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  bank  in  order  to  locate  accu- 
rately the  course  of  100  or  200  feet.  The  surface 
floats  can  be  replaced  by  rods  or  submerged  floats ; 
that  is,  poles  or  tubes  of  tin  or  other  metal  can  be 
prepared  and  weighted  at  the  bottom  in  such  a 
way  as  to  stand  vertical  in  the  water,  just  clearing 
the  bed  of  the  stream  and  with  the  top  appearing 
above  the  surface.  Such  floats  give  very  nearly 
the  average  velocity  of  the  water  of  that  particular 
section.  Submerged  floats  can  also  be  used,  these 
being  small  closed  vessels,  usually  short  cylinders 
so  loaded  as  to  float  at  a  given  depth,  and  connected 
by  means  of  a  small  cord  or  wire  to  a  marker  float- 
ing on  the  surface,  as  shown  in  Fig.  18.  It  is 
difficult  to  determine  the  exact  position  of  sub- 
merged floats  above  the  bottom  and  to  make  allow- 
ance for  the  influence  of  the  wire  and  the  marker. 

Current  Meters. 

The  difficulty  and  even  impossibility  at  times  of 
using  floats,  and  the  various  uncertainties  connected 
with  them,  have  led  to  the  adoption  of  other  devices 
for  obtaining  the  velocity  by  less  direct  methods. 
The  most  common  of  these  is  the  current  meter, 
an  instrument  which  consists  essentially  of  a  small 
mill  or  wheel  held  at  a  given  point  in  the  water 


90  IRRIGATION. 

and  caused  to  revolve  by  the  stream,  the  speed  of 
revolution  being  dependent  upon  the  speed  of  the 
water.  This  rate  of  revolution  may  be  noted  in  a 
number  of  ways,  either  by  means  of  small  wheels 
connected  with  a  dial,  or  by  a  device  making  a  rap 
or  click,  or  by  some  form  of  electric  "  make  and 
break."  The  latter  is  the  preferred  form,  since  the 
meter  can  then  be  used  in  a  great  variety  of  ways 
and  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  operator. 

The  accompanying  view  (PI.  X,  A)  is  of  an 
electric  current  meter,  one  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  illustrative  of  many  different  forms. 
On  the  extreme  right  is  shown  a  series  of  coni- 
cal cups  arranged  on  the  periphery  of  a  wheel  in 
such  a  way  that  the  water  striking  the  open  face 
of  the  cups  causes  them  to  revolve.  Each  revolu- 
tion "makes  and  breaks"  the  electric  current  pass- 
ing through  the  spindle  or  bearing  of  the  wheel. 
This  electric  impulse  is  transmitted  through  a 
double  insulated  conducting  cord,  the  battery  sup- 
plying the  impulse  being  connected  at  the  far  end 
of  this  cord.  In  the  view  the  battery  box  is  open, 
and  the  small  bisulphate  of  mercury  cell  is  shown 
taken  out  of  the  box  and  with  the  zinc  pole 
removed. 

Behind  or  at  the  left  of  the  revolving  wheel  or 
head  of  the  meter  is  seen  the  device  for  supporting 
it  with  a  lead  weight  below,  and  beyond  this  the 
tail  of  the  meter,  consisting  of  two  sheets  of  metal 
at  right  angles  to  each  other,  intended  to  hold  the 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  X. 


A.     ELECTRIC    CURRENT    METER,   CONDUCTING    CORD,    AND 
BATTERY. 


-^       \ 


B-     METHOD    OF    USING   ELECTRIC  CURRENT    METER    FROM 
SUSPENDED  CAR. 


ELECTRIC  CURRENT  METER.       91 

head  of  the  meter  horizontally  in  the  flowing  water. 
When  the  meter  is  lowered  into  the  stream  by 
means  of  the  conducting  cord,  the  head  begins  to 
revolve,  and  each  revolution  opens  and  closes  the 
electric  circuit,  this  fact  being  made  known  by  a 
little  buzzer  or  sounder  about  the  size  of  a  watch 
attached  to  the  back  of  the  battery  box.  The 
engineer  or  hydrographer  using  the  instrument  can 
put  this  battery  box,  with  sounder  attached,  in  his 
pocket,  and  can  hear  the  click,  click,  click,  as  the 
meter  wheel  revolves  under  the  water.  By  holding 
his  watch  in  his  hand  and  noting  the  number  of 
clicks  during,  say,  50  seconds,  he  can  readily 
obtain  the  number  of  revolutions  per  second. 
For  example,  if  he  counts  100  clicks  in  50  seconds, 
the  meter  head  is  obviously  revolving  at  the  rate 
of  two  per  second.  Referring  to  the  table  con- 
structed for  the  purpose,  he  notes  that  two  revolu- 
tions per  second  are  equivalent  to  a  speed  of  5  feet 
per  second,  and  thus  he  obtains  at  once  the  speed 
of  the  water  at  the  particular  point  where  the  meter 
is  placed. 

In  using  a  current  meter  the  chief  operation 
consists  of  placing  the  meter  at  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  points  across  the  stream,  and  from  the  sur- 
face to  the  bottom,  so  as  to  obtain  a  full  knowledge 
of  the  rate  of  flow  of  each  portion  of  the  current. 
In  rivers  and  creeks  of  ordinary  size  it  is  usually 
sufficient  to  make  observations  at  intervals  of,  say, 
i o  or  20  feet  horizontally,  so  that  there  will  be  from 


92  IRRIGATION. 

eight  to  sixteen  localities  of  measurement  across  the 
stream.  The  velocity  is  usually  found  to  vary  but 
little  from  one  of  these  localities  to  another,  unless 
there  are  obstructions,  such  as  large  rocks  or  snags. 
In  deep  streams  it  is  necessary  at  each  of  these 
localities  across  the  section  to  observe  the  velocity 
just  below  the  surface  and  at  intervals  of  from 
2  to  5  feet  to  the  bottom.  In  very  shallow  streams 
usually  only  a  single  measurement  at  each  point 
across  the  stream  can  be  made,  as  the  meter  requires 
some  space  in  order  to  be  submerged  and  not  strike 
the  stones  on  the  bottom. 

When  these  observations  have  been  made  at 
evenly  distributed  points  in  the  vertical,  the  aver- 
age of  them  may  be  taken  as  the  velocity  at  this 
locality,  or  the  figures  can  be  plotted  graphically 
and  the  average  velocity  obtained  by  measurement 
of  the  drawings.  If  the  localities  of  measurement 
of  speed  are  taken  at  intervals  of,  say,  10  or  20 
feet  across  the  river,  the  average  depth  of  each  of 
these  portions  of  the  stream  should  be  multiplied 
into  the  width  and  into  the  average  velocity ;  the 
flow  of  each  portion  of  the  stream  being  thus  sepa- 
rately ascertained,  the  total  will  give  the  complete 
discharge. 

In  order  to  use  the  current  meter  successfully, 
it  is  necessary  to  be  able  to  reach  all  parts  of  the 
cross-section.  This  can  be  done  by  a  plank  laid 
across  a  narrow  brook,  or  by  a  bridge,  if  favorably 
located,  across  the  larger  stream.  Where  there  are 


USING   CURRENT   METER.  93 

no  bridges,  boats  are  occasionally  used,  although  in 
flood  times  these  are  often  dangerous.  A  device 
which  is  largely  used  consists  of  a  stout  iron  or 
steel  cable  stretched  across  the  stream  at  a  con- 
venient place  and  suspended  from  this  a  box,  or  car 
(PI.  X,  B\  large  enough  for  the  hydrographer  to 
sit  or  stand  in  while  using  the  meter.  In  this  box, 
out  of  the  reach  of  the  floods,  the  hydrographer  can 
propel  himself  from  side  to  side  and  can  lower  his 
meter  to  any  desired  depth  beneath  the  surface. 

The  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  19)  has  been 
prepared  to  illustrate  the  operations  of  measure- 
ment of  velocity  by  this  method.  The  drawing 
represents  a  river  flowing  toward  the  reader,  and 
ending  abruptly,  as  though  cut  off  to  give  a  section 
showing  the  surface  and  bottom  of  the  stream. 
Across  the  river  at  this  point  is  stretched  a  steel 
cable  suspended  from  posts,  each  end  of  the  cable 
being  carried  over  the  top  of  the  post  and  continued 
to  an  anchorage  buried  deeply  in  the  soil.  The 
cable  is  drawn  tight  by  means  of  a  turnbuckle  be- 
tween the  anchorage  and  the  supporting  post.  On 
this  cable  a  small  car  is  hung  by  means  of  two 
pulleys,  which  allow  easy  motion  forward  and  back. 
Beside  the  cable,  or  immediately  above  it,  is  a  small 
wire  carrying  at  intervals  of  ten  feet  a  series  of  tags 
marked  ten,  twenty,  thirty,  etc. ;  these  serve  to  give 
the  distance  from  some  fixed  point  on  the  shore. 
On  the  left  side  of  the  view  on  the  bank  of  the 
river,  is  shown  a  stick  of  timber  inclined  at  about 


94 


IRRIGATION. 


the  slope  of  the  shore.  This  has  been  marked  to 
vertical  feet  and  tenths,  and  is  the  gage  upon  which 
record  of  the  daily  height  of  water  is  kept. 

The  curved,  dotted  lines  of  the  figure  are  in- 
tended to  show  points  of  equal  velocity  ;  the  points 
forming  an  oval-shaped  figure  in  the  centre  of  a 
section  of  the  stream  are  those  having  the  same 
speed,  this  being  greater  than  that  shown  by  the 


I-H;.  19.  —  Method  of   measuring  a  river  from  a  car  suspended  from 
a  steel  cable. 


curved  line  which  surrounds  it;  and  this  in  turn 
having  greater  speed  than  the  points  lying  outside 
of  it,  and  so  on,  the  speed  of  the  water  decreasing 
from  a  point  beneath  the  centre  out  toward  the 
banks.  The  bottom  being  irregular,  there  is  shown 
on  the  right-hand  side  a  portion  of  the  stream  where 
the  velocity  increases  somewhat  and  again  dimin- 
ishes toward  the  shore. 

The  vertical  lines  on  the  section  divide  the  river 
into  compartments  ten  feet  in  width,  these  being 
located  by  means  of  the  tagged  wire.  The  depth 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XI. 


A.  SUPPORTS  FOR  SUSPENDED  CAR. 


B.  METHOD  OF  USING  METER  FROM  BOAT. 


MEASURING   A   RIVER.  95 

of  each  of  these  compartments  is  ascertained  by 
sounding,  by  means  of  a  cord  and  weight,  or  by  a 
stick  or  pole.  The  velocity  is  also  measured  near 
the  centre,  this  being  taken  as  the  average  for  the 
whole  compartment.  The  velocity  thus  obtained 
by  means  of  the  current  meter  and  computed  in 
feet  per  second  is  multiplied  by  the  average  depth 
of  the  compartment  and  by  its  width,  the  result 
being  the  discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  second.  The 
sum  of  all  the  measurements  gives  the  total  flow  of 
the  stream. 

The  methods  of  using  the  meter,  or  rather  places 
at  which  it  is  held  in  the  cross-section,  vary  some- 
what according  to  the  nature  of  the  stream  to  be 
measured.  In  an  artificial  channel  of  regular  size, 
particularly  in  a  wooden  or  masonry  flume  or 
conduit  with  flat  bottom  and  straight  sides,  there 
is  usually  less  variation  in  the  velocity  of  different 
portions  of  the  section.  Thus,  the  number  of  ob- 
servations with  the  meter  may  frequently  be  reduced 
without  decreasing  the  accuracy  of  the  work.  In 
the  accompanying  figure  (20)  is  shown  the  cross- 
section  of  a  wooden  flume,  this  being  considered  as 
divided  into  four  portions  or  compartments.  In 
that  on  the  left-hand  side,  numbered  i,  dotted 
lines  and  arrows  have  been  drawn  to  indicate  one 
of  the  methods  of  using  a  current  meter.  Starting 
at  the  top,  the  meter  is  lowered  slowly  along  the 
side  of  the  flume  to  the  bottom,  then  carried  diago- 
nally upward  to  the  top,  then  vertically  downward 


96  IRRIGATION. 

to  the  bottom  and  diagonally  across  to  the  point  of 
beginning.  The  instrument  is  moved  with  a  slow, 
steady  motion.  The  number  of  seconds  required 
to  complete  this  circuit  is  usually  from  fifty  to 
seventy-five,  record  of  these  being  kept  by  a  stop- 
watch, and  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  meter 
being  counted.  This  process  and  its  modifications 
are  sometimes  known  as  measurement  by  integra- 
tion, it  being  assumed  that  the  average  velocity  of 
the  water  is  obtained  by  the  meter  as  it  is  moved 
from  place  to  place. 


WATf*      LCVCL 


FKJ.  20.  —  Section  of  flume  illustrating  methods  of  measurement. 

In  the  division  numbered  2  the  course  of  the 
meter  is  indicated  as  being  moved  slowly  from  the 
top  to  the  bottom,  thus  integrating  the  velocity 
through  the  centre  of  the  section,  it  being  consid- 
ered that  at  a  distance  from  the  side  of  the  flume 
a  fairly  uniform  motion  of  the  water  takes  place. 
A  third  method  of  obtaining  the  velocity  is  that 
shown  in  the  division  marked  3,  where  the  meter 
is  held  steadily  for  fifty  or  one  hundred  seconds 


WEIR   MEASUREMENTS.  97 

at  the  point  of  mean  velocity,  this  being  approxi- 
mately three-fifths  of  the  depth  below  the  surface. 
The  speed  at  this  point  has  been  found  by  experi- 
ment to  be  usually  equal  to  the  average  for  the 
entire  division  or  compartment. 

It  is  usually  preferable  in  streams  with  rough 
sides  and  bottom  to  make  observations  of  velocity  at 
various  points  across  the  section  and  near  the  top 
and  bottom,  as  it  is  not  safe  to  rely  upon  the  water 
following  any  arbitrary  rule  deduced  from  other 
streams.  There  are  occasionally  pools  of  stagnant 
water  near  the  edges  or  in  deep  holes,  and  these 
can  be  discovered  only  by  a  well-distributed  series 
of  velocity  measurements  at  definite  points. 

Weirs. 

The  methods  above  described  are  what  may  be 
termed  direct  forms  of  measurement,  since  they 
involve  ascertaining  the  simple  elements  of  width, 
depth,  and  velocity.  There  are,  however,  other 
methods  which  arrive  at  the  total  flow  by  the  ap- 
plication of  principles  and  formulae  derived  from 
experiments.  In  these  methods  the  velocity  of 
water  is  estimated  as  it  passes  over  or  through  some 
regularly  formed  channel  or  aperture  ;  for  example, 
over  the  crest  of  a  dam  or  through  openings  cut 
in  it.  A  dam,  whether  in  a  large  or  small  stream, 
so  constructed  that  the  water  passes  over  it  or 
through  a  regular  section,  usually  with  decided 
fall,  is  termed  a  weir.  The  weir  may  be  totally 
H 


98  IRRIGATION. 

submerged  or  its  sides  or  ends  may  project  above 
the  water,  narrowing  the  channel.  The  term  is 
applied,  on  the  one  extreme,  to  the  great  masonry 
structures  built  across  large  rivers  for  the  purpose 
of  regulating  the  channel,  and  on  the  other  ex- 
treme, to  a  board  placed  across  a  small  brook  or 
ditch,  with  a  notch  or  opening  cut  in  it,  to  per- 
mit the  regular  flow  of  water  for  the  purpose  of 
measurement. 

Elaborate  and  careful  experiments  have  been 
made  with  weirs  of  various  forms  and  dimensions, 
to  determine  the  rule  or  law  of  velocity  of  the  water 
flowing  through  openings  of  given  size  and  shape. 
From  the  facts  thus  obtained  formulae  have  been 
derived  which  are  applied  to  streams  of  consider- 
able size,  as  well  as  those  comparable  to  the  ones 
upon  which  the  experiments  were  tried.  The 
accompanying  illustrations  show  two  classes  of 
weirs.  The  first  (PI.  XII,  A)  is  across  Genesee 
River,  New  York,  taking  the  full  flow  of  that 
stream  in  high  and  low  water.  The  second 
(PI.  XII,  B)  is  on  Cottonwood  Creek,  in  Utah. 

The  essentials  of  a  weir  are  that  the  water  shall 
be  partially  stilled  and  flow  gently  with  uniform 
current  toward  the  edge.  Above  this  edge  there 
should  be  deep  water,  so  that  the  currents  may 
approach  without  disturbance.  On  the  lower  side 
there  should  also  be  a  free  fall.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  technical  requirements  to  be  observed  ac- 
cording to  the  formula  to  be  applied  ;  that  is  to  say, 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XII. 


A.    WEIR  ON   GENESEE  RIVER,   NEW  YORK. 


B.    WEIR  ON   COTTONWOOD  CREEK,   UTAH. 


ESSENTIALS   OF   A   WEIR. 


99 


for  a  sharp-crested  or  flat-crested  weir,  or  for  one 
with  end  contractions,  certain  precautions  are  to 
be  observed.  In  order  to  secure  accuracy,  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  all  of  these  details,  that  they 
may  conform  to  the  conditions  of  the  original  ex- 
periments from  which  the  rules  were  derived. 

The  accompanying  figure  (21)  shows  a  small  weir 
placed  in  a  running  stream,  ponding  water  some- 


FIG.  21.  —  Ordinary  weir  in  a  small  stream. 

what  by  contracting  the  channel.  As  the  water 
approaches  the  sharp  edge  over  which  it  falls 
the  stream  contracts,  so  that  to  ascertain  the  exact 
height  of  the  water  above  the  horizontal  crest 
over  which  it  falls  it  is  necessary  to  drive  down 
a  peg  three  or  four  feet  back  from  the  crest  to  the 
exact  level  with  the  edge  of  the  weir,  and  to  meas- 
ure from  this  peg  up  to  the  water  surface.  This 


100  IRRIGATION. 

gives  the  height  of  the  water  on  the  weir;  the 
depth  of  water  above  the  weir  should  be  at  least 
twice  this  height.  The  weir  should  be  placed'  at 
right  angles  to  the  current  of  the  stream,  and  the 
water  should  be  brought  as  nearly  as  possible  to 
rest,  passing  with  free  fall  over  the  crest,  and  with 
a  width  at  least  three  times  the  depth.  By  care- 
fully observing  certain  precautions,  and  applying 
suitable  formulae  or  rules  derived  from  experiment, 
it  is  possible  to  ascertain  the  flow  of  a  stream  with 
an  error  of  only  i  or  2  per  cent.  Computations  of 
discharge  can  be  avoided  by  using  tables  prepared 
for  weirs  of  different  size  and  form,  a  number  of 
these  having  been  printed  as  standard  books  of 
reference  for  the  use  of  engineers. 

Many  of  the  more  important  rivers  of  the  United 
States  are  used,  in  part  at  least,  for  water  power, 
and  dams  have  been  built  across  them,  raising  the 
water  and  ponding  it  for  many  miles.  Occasion- 
ally the  dam  of  one  water  power  is  placed  near  the 
upper  end  of  the  slack  water  caused  by  the  dam 
below,  and  thus  the  free  flow  of  the  river  is  im- 
peded and  artificial  conditions  are  created,  so  that 
ordinary  current  meter  or  float  measurements  are 
impossible.  In  such  cases  the  discharge  of  the 
stream  can  be  ascertained  only  by  using  the  dam  as 
a  measuring  weir  and  by  various  indirect  methods. 
It  is  necessary  to  know  the  amount  which  passes 
through  the  water  wheels,  out  of  the  waste  ways, 
as  well  as  that  flowing  over  the  crest  of  the  dam 


MILL   DAMS   AS   WEIRS.  ioi 

in  times  of  flood.  To  do  this  requires  a  large 
number  of  observations.  The  amount  of  water 
used  by  each  wheel  must  be  known,  and  the  num- 
ber of  hours  during  which  the  wheel  is  operated 
each  day,  the  wheel  being  considered  as  a  water 
meter.  The  sum  of  the  quantities  used  by  the 
wheels  can  thus  be  obtained,  and  to  this  must  be 
added  the  amount  flowing  over  or  through  the  dam. 
Each  of  the  openings  must  be  measured,  and  the 
amount  which  escapes  over  the  top  computed  by 
considering  the  dam  as  a  weir.  The  matter  is 
further  complicated  by  the  fact  that  many  mill 
dams,  especially  those  built  of  logs  or  timber,  are 
full  of  small  leaks,  permitting  a  quantity  of  water 
to  pass  through  or  beneath  them,  the  amount  of 
which  can  only  be  roughly  approximated  or  guessed. 
It  is  possible,  however,  by  these  somewhat  round- 
about methods  to  obtain  a  very  fair  estimate  of 
the  discharge  of  a  river,  —  one  which  is  of  value 
in  all  practical  considerations. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

CONVEYING  AND   DIVIDING  STREAM   WATERS. 
DIVERSION    FROM    THE    STREAM. 

THE  greater  part  of  the  water  used  in  irrigation 
is  taken  from  the  river  or  creek  by  natural  flow  or 
gravity.  The  cost  of  lifting  or  pumping  water  is 
usually  too  great  to  be  profitable  for  the  produc- 
tion of  ordinary  crops,  and  therefore  most  irriga- 
tion systems  must  be  planned  with  reference  to 
the  relative  altitude  of  the  lands  to  be  irrigated 
and  the  source  of  water. 

The  streams  issuing  from  the  high  mountains 
descend  with  rapid  fall  toward  the  lower  valleys, 
where,  as  a  rule,  the  slope  is  less  and  the  water 
moves  more  slowly.  The  lands  to  be  irrigated  in 
the  valley  are,  for  the  most  part,  along  the  river, 
but  at  a  higher  elevation  than  the  stream  which 
they  border.  They  are,  however,  in  part  at  least, 
lower  than  the  water  farther  up-stream ;  and  if 
a  canal  or  ditch  is  begun  on  a  gentle  grade  above 
the  head  of  the  valley  and  carried  out  along  the 
banks  of  the  stream,  it  can  be  kept  at  a  higher 
elevation  than  some  of  the  valley  land.  In  the 

102 


BEGINNING    A    DITCH.  103 

narrow  gorge  or  canyon  above  the  valley  the  stream 
may  be  falling  at  a  rate  of  10  feet  per  mile.  Water 
will  flow  in  the  ditch  if  a  fall  of  only  2  feet  per 
mile  is  given  to  it.  Starting  on  this  grade  from 
the  river,  at  the  end  of  the  first  mile  the  water  in 
the  ditch  will  be  8  feet  above  that  in  the  river, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  tenth  mile  will  be  80  feet 
higher,  and  will  thus  cover  all  land  which  is  less 
than  80  feet  in  altitude  above  the  stream  at  this 
locality. 

In  the  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  22)  the 
letter  A  is  at  the  head  of  the  valley  and  B  at  the 
lower  end.  The  river,  E,  flows  with  winding  course 
from  A  to  B,  with  agricultural  land  on  each  side 
sloping  gently  toward  the  river.  Some  point,  C, 
back  from  the  river  can  be  found  which  is  lower 
than  A,  and  a  canal  line  on  a  gently  descending 
grade,  less  than  that  of  the  river,  can  be  taken  out 
from  A  and  beyond  C,  following  the  contours  of 
the  side  slopes.  The  land  between  the  canal  and 
the  river  is  lower  than  the  canal,  and  lateral  or 
distributing  ditches  can  be  taken  out  toward  the 
stream.  These  can  be  constructed  directly  down- 
hill, or,  if  the  slopes  are  too  steep,  can  be  carried 
off  diagonally. 

In  planning  an  irrigation  system,  it  is  usual  to 
begin  at  the  highest  point  of  the  tract  of  land  or 
valley  to  be  irrigated,  and  run  a  trial  line  on  a 
slightly  ascending  grade  (a  foot,  more  or  less,  to 
a  mile),  following  this  line  as  it  meanders  in  and 


IO4 


IRRIGATION. 


out  along  the  slopes,  and  continuing  it  through 
the  upper  end  of  the  valley  and  into  the  canyon 
from  which  the  stream  issues,  until  the  trial  line 
finally  reaches  water  level.  Frequently  it  happens 


FlG.  22.  —  Diagram  showing  method  of  diverting  a  canal  from  a  river. 

that  such  a  line  will  wind  around  bluffs  and  rocky 
places  where  ditch  construction  may  be  impossible. 
In  such  a  case  a  higher  or  lower  line  must  be 
taken.  If  lower,  it  is  apparent  that  the  higher 
points  in  the  valley  cannot  be  reached  by  the 
water,  and  it  may  be  necessary  to  leave  unirrigated 
above  the  ditch  a  considerable  portion  of  the  fer- 


LAYING   OUT   A   DITCH.  105 

tile  land.  Thus  it  sometimes  occurs  that,  even 
though  there  is  an  abundance  of  water,  some  of 
the  good  land  must  be  left  unwatered,  as  it  is  im- 
practicable to  build  a  ditch  which  will  reach  it. 

In  the  simplest  case  of  laying  out  a  ditch,  a 
farmer  takes  a  straight-edge  or  board  16.5  feet,  or 
a  rod,  in  length,  and  tacks  on  one  end  of  this  a  pro- 
jecting block  or  peg  one-half  of  an  inch  or  an  inch 
in  height.  When  this  board  is  placed  horizontally, 
the  lower  projecting  point  will  give  a  fall  of  one- 
half  of  an  inch  or  an  inch  to  the  rod.  Beginning 
at  a  given  point,  one  end  of  the  straight-edge  is 
placed  on  a  stake  driven  flush  with  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  and  the  other  end,  having  the  pro- 
jection upon  it,  is  swung  around  until  it  strikes  the 
surface.  A  stake  is  driven  in  here,  this  stake  be- 
ing lower  than  the  first  by  an  amount  equal  to  the 
height  of  the  projection  or  peg.  The  operation  may 
be  reversed  if  the  laying  out  of  the  ditch  is  begun 
at  the  lower  end.  In  this  way  stakes  are  driven  into 
the  ground  at  intervals  of  a  rod,  marking  out  the 
course  of  the  ditch  upon  a  slightly  ascending  or 
descending  grade  according  as  the  work  is  begun 
from  the  lower  or  upper  end. 

The  accompanying  figure  (23)  shows  an  effec- 
tive form  of  levelling  device  used  by  irrigators.  It 
consists  of  a  straight-edge  or  board,  from  the  ends 
of  which  pieces  extend  diagonally  upward  to  form 
a  support  for  a  plumb  bob.  This  is  adjusted  so 
that  when  the  straight-edge  is  horizontal  the  plumb 


io6 


IRRIGATION. 


bob  will  fall  opposite  a  fixed  point.  The  same 
results  can  be  obtained  by  using  a  carpenter's  level, 
but  the  device  shown  can  be  constructed  by  any 
person  of  ordinary  skill,  and  will  suffice  for  laying 
out  ditches  for  irrigation  or  drainage. 

The  ditch  having  been  staked  out  in  the  manner 
above  described,  or  better  by  means  of  surveying 
instruments,  a  furrow  is  ploughed  along  the  course, 


i-K;.  23.  —  Levelling  device  for  laying  out  ditches. 

and  the  earth  thrown  out  by  shovels  or  scrapers 
(PI.  XIII,  A).  Near  the  upper  end  of  the  ditch  it 
may  be  necessary  to  blast  away  the  rocks,  and  at 
intervals  along  its  course  depressions  must  some- 
times be  crossed  by  means  of  wooden  flumes.  As 
far  as  possible,  however,  ditches  are  carried  up 
into  and  around  depressions  in  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  in  order  to  avoid  building  these  wooden 
structures,  since  they  decay  rapidly  and  are  sources 
of  considerable  expense.  (See  Figs.  36  and  48.) 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XIII. 


J  m ' 


I.     DIGGING  A  DITCH    FROM   A   RIVER. 


-        * 

B.    THE    FINISHED   DITCH. 


FARMERS1  ASSOCIATIONS.  107 

For  the  purpose  of  digging  large  ditches  or 
canals,  a  number  of  farmers  usually  combine,  form- 
ing an  association  which  may  be  incorporated. 
Ownership  is  usually  based  upon  the  proportion  of 
labor  contributed  by  each  member,  and  this  in  turn 
is  determined  largely  by  the  amount  of  land  owned 
and  to  be  irrigated  by  each  person.  These  asso- 
ciations may  be  simply  partnerships  without  any 
written  agreement,  or  may  be  formally  organized 
with  constitution  and  by-laws,  and  be  incorporated 
under  the  laws  of  the  state.  Frequently  stock  is 
issued,  each  share  entitling  the  owner  to  receive  a 
certain  amount  of  water  from  the  ditch,  or  a  defi- 
nite proportion  of  the  whole  amount  available  at 
any  particular  time.  Sometimes  these  shares  spec- 
ify the  time  of  day,  so  that  one  man  receives  the 
entire  flow  of  the  main  ditch  or  a  lateral  from  six 
o'clock  in  the  morning  until  noon,  and  his  neighbor, 
being  entitled  to  less  water,  receives  the  entire  flow 
from  noon  until  two  in  the  afternoon ;  and  so  on 
throughout  the  day  and  night. 

These  associations  or  corporations  elect  their 
own  officers  and  manage  their  affairs  in  the  same 
manner  as  any  other  business  concern.  The  most 
important  official,  however,  after  the  treasurer,  is 
the  person  charged  with  the  management  of  the 
canal.  He  is  usually  known  as  the  "  watermaster  " 
or  "  ditch-rider "  ;  or,  in  Spanish-speaking  com- 
munities, as  majordomo  or  zanjero,  from  the  word 
"  zanja  "  (usually  called  sankha),  the  Spanish  term 


108  IRRIGATION. 

for  irrigation  ditch.  It  is  his  business  to  see  that 
all  stockholders  or  owners  receive  a  fair  amount  of 
water,  using  various  means  for  measuring  or  divid- 
ing it,  as  described  on  a  later  page. 

The  greater  number  of  ditches  and  canals  now 
in  use  within  the  arid  region  have  been  built  by 
individuals  and  associations  of  this  character.  In 
a  relatively  few  instances  large  works  have  been 
constructed  by  corporations  issuing  stock  to  per- 
sons who  were  not  landowners,  and  borrowing 
additional  capital  upon  bonds.  Several  canals  have 
been  constructed  in  this  way,  but  as  a  rule  these 
have  not  been  financially  successful,  and  develop- 
ment is  not  continuing  along  this  line. 

DISTRIBUTION    OF    FLOW. 

The  pioneer,  coming  to  a  new  portion  of  the 
arid  country,  first  sought  a  stream  from  which 
•water  could  be  diverted  upon  arable  land.  As  a 
rule  he  laid  claim  to  the  whole  flow  and  built  a 
ditch,  small  at  first,  taking  only  enough  water  to 
supply  the  land  which  he  could  cultivate  during 
the  first  year  or  two.  From  time  to  time,  as  more 
land  was  brought  under  irrigation,  the  ditch  was 
enlarged  by  being  widened  and  deepened,  more 
and  more  water  being  taken  from  the  stream  as 
needed.  In  the  case  of  associations  of  farmers, 
the  same  course  has  usually  been  followed,  the 
ditch  or  canal  being  at  first  small  and  built  in  the 
quickest  and  cheapest  manner  possible,  and  then 


INCREASING   DEMANDS   FOR    WATER.      109 

gradually  enlarged  to  take  a  greater  and  greater 
proportion  of  the  water  in  the  river. 

Soon  after  the  first  settler  or  association  took 
out  water  in  a  ditch,  others  would  begin  similar 
works  a  few  miles  above  or  below  the  first,  each 
in  turn  generally  claiming  all  the  water  to  be  had  at 
the  particular  point  where  the  head  works  were 
located.  If  the  stream  is  of  considerable  volume, 
sufficient  to  fill  all  of  the  ditches,  no  difficulties 
arise ;  but  sooner  or  later  the  increasing  size  and 
number  of  ditches  and  canals  result  in  diminish- 
ing the  flow  in  the  river  to  such  an  extent  that  it 
becomes  dry,  and  water  does  not  reach  the  ditches 
farthest  down-stream.  This  scarcity  of  water  first 
becomes  apparent  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
crop  season,  in  July  and  August,  when  the  streams, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  16  (p.  65),  are  lowest  and  the 
need  of  water  is  greatest. 

It  usually  happens  that  the  ditches  lowest  down- 
stream are  those  which  were  built  first,  and  which 
under  the  customs  prevalent  in  arid  regions  are 
entitled  to  priority  of  right  to  the  use  of  the  water. 
The  farmers  under  these  lower  ditches,  seeing  their 
crops  wither  and  orchards  which  have  reached 
maturity  die  for  lack  of  water,  are  tempted  to  take 
desperate  measures,  and  going  up-stream,  forcibly 
close  the  head  gates  of  the  upper  canals,  tear  out 
dams  in  the  river,  and  let  down  needed  water  for 
their  farms.  Thus  has  come  in  some  parts  of  the 
arid  region,  a  time  when,  owing  to  scarcity  of  water, 


1 10  IRRIGATION. 

lawlessness  has  prevailed,  and  every  man  has  en- 
deavored to  obtain  for  his  own  crops  as  much  as 
possible  of  the  scanty  supply. 

The  necessity  for  rules  and  regulations  govern- 
ing the  division  of  water  from  the  streams  early 
became  apparent  in  all  localities  where  develop- 
ment has  proceeded  to  any  considerable  extent, 
and  various  schemes  have  been  devised  for  such 
regulation.  Along  some  of  the  rivers,  the  farmers 
and  canal  companies,  becoming  weary  of  the  fre- 
quent controversies  among  themselves,  have  volun- 
tarily joined  together,  and  after  much  debate  and 
experimenting  have  finally  agreed  upon  rules  by 
which  a  division  of  the  water  has  been  made. 
Where  these  matters  could  not  be  thus  settled, 
court  decisions  have  been  obtained.  Such,  for 
example,  has  been  the  result  along  many  of  the 
streams  of  California,  the  arrangements  being  com- 
plicated and  difficult  of  ready  comprehension  by 
the  stranger,  but  well  understood  by  the  irrigators 
themselves  and  all  based  upon  experience  and  local 
needs. 

In  some  parts  of  the  arid  region  the  states  have 
undertaken  the  regulation  of  disputes,  and  have 
created  special  boards  or  tribunals  to  consider  the 
matter  and  apportion  the  water.  For  example,  in 
Colorado,  where  the  state  is  divided  into  districts, 
each  embracing  a  single  stream,  the  regulation  of 
the  waters  is  intrusted  to  state  officials  known 
as  commissioners.  The  districts  are  grouped  to- 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XIV. 


STATE   SUPERVISION.  ill 

gather  to  form  divisions  corresponding  to  the 
principal  river  basins.  Each  division  is  under 
the  charge  of  a  superintendent,  who  supervises  the 
work  of  the  commissioners.  Superintendents,  in 
turn,  are  under  the  state  engineer.  It  is  the  duty 
of  these  officials  to  regulate  the  head  gates  in  time 
of  scarcity,  carrying  out  the  decrees  of  the  state 
courts,  cutting  off  water  from  the  new  ditches  in 
order  that  the  older  priorities  may  be  supplied, 
following  the  decrees  made  by  the  courts  as  to  the 
order  of  priority  and  amount  of  water  to  which 
each  ditch  is  entitled. 

In  Wyoming  the  state  engineer  is  empowered 
to  ascertain  the  amount  of  water  flowing  in  the 
stream,  and  with  the  superintendents  forms  what  is 
practically  a  court  for  the  hearing  of  cases  and  the 
adjudication  of  claims  to  the  water,  the  principal 
facts  having  been  ascertained  by  observation  and 
measurement  in  the  field  rather  than  by  testimony 
of  interested  parties,  as  in  Colorado.  This  has 
sometimes  been  regarded  as  theoretically  the  best 
method ;  but  practice  has  raised  some  doubts  as 
to  its  applicability  in  states  where  developments 
have  proceeded  farther. 

While  there  is  little  uniformity  among  the  dif- 
ferent states  as  regards  the  control  and  distribution 
of  water,  there  are  certain  underlying  principles 
which  are  discussed  on  page  286  under  the  head 
of  Irrigation  Law ;  and,  more  than  this,  there  is 
a  gradual  tendency  toward  evolution  along  lines 


112  IRRIGATION. 

which  experience  has  shown  to  be  best  suited  to 
American  conditions.  The  first  stage  of  develop- 
ment is  the  construction  of  small  ditches,  each  con- 
ducting water  from  streams  sufficiently  large  to 
supply  all  needs.  The  next  stage  is  where  the 
increase  in  number  and  capacity  of  the  ditches  has 
resulted  in  scarcity  of  supply  and  in  competition 
among  the  claimants  for  water.  The  third  stage 
is  one  of  mutual  adjustment  and  division  according 
to  court  decrees  or  agreements  reached  by  arbitra- 
tion. The  next  stage,  one  which  is  being  gradually 
reached,  is  the  adjustment  of  interests  so  as  to  allow 
an  apportionment  of  water  in  such  a  way  as  to 
increase  its  economical  use.  For  example,  instead 
of  dividing  the  water  strictly  according  to  priority 
and  thus  wasting  considerable  portions  in  forcing  it 
down  the  stream  to  lower  ditches,  the  scanty  supply 
is  so  distributed  as  to  give  the  greatest  benefit  to 
the  greatest  numbers. 

The  last  stage  of  evolution  of  water  distribution 
is  that  in  which,  all  or  the  greater  part  of  the  in- 
terests being  mutually  adjusted,  the  united  efforts 
are  directed  toward  water  storage  and  conservation 
of  the  supply  by  building  reservoirs  and  by  adapt- 
ing the  methods  of  irrigation  to  suit  the  fluctuating 
quantities. 

The  accompanying  figure  (24)  illustrates  the 
manner  in  which  ditches  have  been  constructed 
at  regular  intervals  along  a  stream,  taking  water 
out  on  one  side  or  the  other.  In  this  figure  the 


PRIORITIES. 


ditches  are  numbered  in  geographical  order  from 
the  head  waters  down,  and  the  lands  irrigated 
under  them  are  indicated  by  shading.  The  order 
of  priority  in  the  use  of  water  is  not  that  of  the 
position  along  the  stream.  For  example,  No.  22, 


T.2SN.  R.70W. 


T.Z9N.R69W 


T.Z9N.R63W 


T.Z.QN.R.7OW. 


FIG.  24.  —  Map  of  ditches  along  n  stream. 

near  the  lower  end,  may  be  the 
oldest,  and  therefore  entitled  to 
the  full  share  of  water  before  all 
the  others,  and  No.  7  may  be  the 
latest,  and  entitled  to  water  only 
in  times  of  flood.  When,  there- 
fore, a  scarcity  occurs  in  the  river, 
No.  7  is  at  once  closed  down,  and  then  No.  10,  if  it 
happens  to  be  the  next  as  regards  recent  construc- 
tion, and  so  on,  one  ditch  after  another  being  de- 
prived of  water  in  order  to  supply  the  oldest  ditches 
with  the  needed  amount,  until  finally,  in  extreme 
drought,  the  ditch  first  constructed  receives  the 
entire  flow.  With  increase  of  discharge  of  the 


114  IRRIGATION. 

stream,  the  head  gates  of  the  ditches  are  opened  in 
the  order  of  date  of  priorities  until,  in  times  of 
flood,  all  are  opened. 

After  a  ditch  or  canal  has  received  its  full  sup- 
ply, or  the  quantity  to  which  it  is  entitled,  there 
usually  arise  among  the  various  irrigators  many 
conflicting  demands  in  times  of  scarcity,  the  con- 
dition being  comparable  to  the  claims  made  by  the 
canals  upon  the  main  stream.  In  the  early  days, 
when  there  was  plenty  of  water  in  the  river,  and 
the  ditch  or  canal  carried  more  water  than  was 
needed,  each  user  took  all  he  chose,  flooding  his 
land  freely,  sometimes  drowning  out  and  destroy- 
ing portions  of  it,  and  running  the  excess  over  the 
roads  and  neighboring  grazing  land.  With  the 
gradual  widening  of  the  cultivated  area,  the  need 
for  water  has  increased,  and  attempts  have  been 
made  to  check  the  waste ;  but  the  older  irrigators, 
accustomed  to  the  lavish  use  of  water,  have  been 
loath  to  restrict  themselves,  even  though  it  has 
been  demonstrated  again  and  again  that  better 
results  could  be  had  by  using  less  water. 

It  has  usually  been  found  necessary  for  the 
irrigators  to  appoint  or  elect  one  of  their  number 
to  serve  for  a  season  as  watermaster,  and  to  appor- 
tion to  each  claimant  a  certain  amount  of  the  water, 
or  assign  certain  days  and  hours  during  which 
water  can  be  used.  The  watermaster  must,  when 
the  supply  is  scanty,  go  along  the  canal  and  see  that 
the  various  head  gates  are  closed  or  opened  to 


PLATE  XV. 


A.    MASONRY  HEAD-GATES  OF  CANAL. 


B.    TIMBER  REGULATOR. 


WATERM  ASTERS.  115 

receive  the  determined  quantity  of  water,  locking 
these  so  that  they  cannot  be  tampered  with  after 
he  has  left.  Often  the  quantity  of  water  has  been 
settled  only  after  vexatious  lawsuits  or  neighbor- 
hood quarrels,  and  great  tact  is  required  to  preserve 
friendly  relations  during  times  of  scarcity,  when 
some  crops  must  be  left  to  wither  under  the  intense 
summer  heat,  in  order  to  save  others  whose  owners 
enjoy  older  or  prior  rights. 

DAMS    AND    HEAD    GATES. 

At  the  upper  end  of  each  ditch  it  is  usual  to 
construct  some  device  by  which  the  amount  of 
water  entering  from  the  river  can  be  regulated. 
Without  this,  flood  waters  would  fill  the  ditch 
beyond  its  capacity,  overflowing  and  washing  away 
the  banks.  In  times  of  low  water,  also,  the  stream 
may  fall  to  such  an  extent  that  it  must  be  raised 
somewhat  by  a  dam  and  forced  into  the  ditch.  At 
all  times  it  may  be  necessary  to  regulate  the  flow 
in  order  to  apportion  the  water  fairly  to  all 
concerned. 

In  the  case  of  the  simplest  ditch,  a  small  dam 
of  brush  and  stone,  illustrated  in  Fig.  25,  is  usually 
built  diagonally  into  or  across  the  stream  bed  as 
the  water  becomes  low  in  the  summer,  and  this  is 
made  tight  by  means  of  sod  and  earth.  Such  a 
dam  is  usually  washed  away  by  high  water,  but 
can  be  replaced  at  small  labor  and  expense.  More 
permanent  structures  are  sometimes  built  of  timber 


u6 


IRRIGATION. 


or  masonry,  especially  in  the  case  of  works  con- 
structed by  large  associations  or  corporations. 
These  dams,  intended  to  resist  the  destructive 
action  of  floods,  must  be  solidly  constructed  and 
carried  down  to  bed  rock. 


Fir..  25.  —  Plan  of  diversion  works  in  river. 


The  temporary  brush  dams  are  cheaply  con- 
structed and  suffice  for  most  of  the  smaller  ditches, 
and  even  for  some  of  the  larger  canals.  They  pos- 
sess the  advantage  that  whenever  a  destructive 
flood  occurs,  modifying  the  channel,  they  can  be 
rebuilt  to  suit  the  new  conditions,  the  head  of  the 
ditch  being  extended,  or  located  at  a  point  where- 
ever  the  dam  can  be  most  cheaply  or  effectively 
constructed.  Sometimes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  26,  two 
canals  head  near  each  other,  and  the  temporary 
dams  can  be  modified  from  time  to  time  to  divert 


BRUSH    DAMS. 


117 


the  water  in  the  river  according   to   the  volume 
available. 

Near  the  head  of  a  ditch  or  canal  is  usually 
placed  a  head  gate,  or  regulator.  This  consists  of 
a  suitable  framework  of  plank,  firmly  bedded  in 
the  earth  or  rock,  and  containing  one  or  more 
openings,  each  of  which  can  be  closed  by  a  gate 


FIG.  26.  —  Brush  dams  of  canals  heading  near  each  other. 

sliding  vertically.  The  water  enters  under  the 
gates,  the  quantity  being  controlled  by  raising  or 
lowering  them.  On  the  better-built  canals  perma- 
nent head  gates  are  sometimes  constructed  of  ma- 
sonry, as  shown  by  PL  XV,  A.  The  relative  situa- 
tions of  the  canal,  dam,  and  regulator,  where  the 
conditions  are  favorable,  are  shown  on  Fig.  27. 

The  adjustment  of  these  head  gates  is  a  matter 
of  considerable  importance  in  taking  water  from 
the  river,  and  for  large  canals  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  watchman  stationed  near  the  head,  in  order 


u8 


IRRIGATION. 


that  the  gates  may  be  raised  or  lowered,  according 
to  the  amount  in  the  river  and  the  quantity  appor- 
tioned to  the  canal. 


FlG.  27.  —  Plan  of  dam  and  regulator. 

The  accompanying  drawing  (Fig.  28)  shows  the 
method  of  construction  of  one  of  the  small  timber 
head  gates,  or  regulators,  such  as  are  used  at  the 


HEAD   GATES. 


119 


head  of  small  ditches  leading  from  the  stream  or 
from  some  large  canal.  These  are  built  of  plank, 
each  end  being  made  flaring  to  meet  the  sides  of 
the  ditch  and  to  form  a  firm  junction  with  the 


FIG.  28.  —  Details  of  small  head  gate. 

earth.  It  is,  of  course,  important  to  pack  clay 
and  impervious  material  around  the  head  gate  so 
as  to  prevent  leakage,  as  a  tiny  stream  working 
its  way  through  the  earth  will  quickly  be  enlarged 
and  endanger  the  whole  structure.  Various  forms 
of  head  gates  are  shown  on  Pis.  XV  and  XVI. 


120  IRRIGATION. 


MEASURING    DEVICES    OR    MODULES. 

After  water  has  been  received  into  a  canal  and 
at  various  points  along  its  course  to  the  fields  of 
the  irrigators,  there  frequently  arises  the  necessity 
of  making  measurements  of  the  volume,  or  of  divid- 
ing the  flow  proportionately  among  the  users. 
The  methods  employed  are  in  general  similar  to 
those  in  river  measurements,  described  in  preceding 
pages.  The  quantity  of  water  is,  however,  often 
so  small,  and  the  means  at  hand  so  restricted,  that 
different  ways  are  occasionally  adopted.  The  per- 
sons whose  business  it  is  to  divide  the  water  rarely 
have  instruments,  such  as  a  current  meter,  and 
their  knowledge  of  hydraulics  is  too  limited  to 
enable  them  to  make  measurements  of  any  con- 
siderable accuracy.  They  usually  judge  of  the 
amount  of  water  by  its  appearance,  at  most  meas- 
uring the  width  and  depth,  and  guessing  at  the 
velocity,  or  not  taking  it  into  account.  There  is 
thus  little  attempt  at  accuracy,  and,  in  fact,  abso- 
lute quantities  are  not  often  obtained,  but  rather 
proportional  parts  of  the  flow.  An  irrigator  usu- 
ally receives  a  quarter  or  one-tenth  of  the  water  in 
the  ditch  rather  than  a  certain  number  of  gallons 
or  cubic  feet  per  second.  Thus  the  measuring 
boxes  or  flumes  are  generally  made  with  the  idea 
of  taking  a  certain  proportion  of  the  whole  amount 
of  water  irrespective  of  the  volume. 

One  of   the  simplest   devices  for  apportioning 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XVI. 


A.     REGULATING  OR  MEASURING  DEVICE  NEAR  HEAD  OF  CANAL. 


B.    DISTRIBUTION   BOX  ON   FARMER'S   LATERAL. 


DIVIDING   WATER.  121 

ditch  water  is  shown  diagrammatically  in  the  accom- 
panying plan  (Fig.  29).  The  water,  flowing  toward 
the  left,  is  divided  by  the  partition  marked  A.  The 
water  passing  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  partition 
A  is  conducted  off  by  a  side  channel  or  lateral, 
while  that  flowing 

on   the   right-hand  ;  B 

side  of  A  continues 
in  the  ditch.  This 
partition  A  may 
be  movable,  so  as 

to    divert    different      Fio.  29.—  Pian  of  device  for  dividing  water. 

quantities  of  water 

at  various  times,  or  may  be  fixed,  if  it  is  understood 
that  a  certain  proportion  of  the  water  is  always  to 
pass  out  of  a  lateral  at  this  point. 

If  the  partition  A  is  in  the  centre  of  the  stream, 
equal  amounts  of  water  will  be  diverted  on  each 
side,  except  as  this  may  be  affected  by  the  retard- 
ing influence  of  the  channel  beyond.  In  the  con- 
dition shown  in  the  diagram,  the  right-angled  turn 
would'  probably  cause  a  slightly  less  amount  of  flow 
on  the  left-hand  side  than  on  the  right-hand  side, 
where  the  channel  is  straight.  If,  as  shown  in  the 
drawing,  the  partition  A  is  one-third  of  the  dis- 
tance across  the  channel,  the  amount  diverted  on 
the  left  side  will  probably  be  a  trifle  less  than  one- 
third  of  the  whole  amount,  because  of  the  in- 
creased friction  in  the  narrower  channel,  and  also 
because  of  the  right-angled  turn  beyond.  Other 


122  IRRIGATION. 

forms  of  boxes  for  dividing  water  are  shown  on 
PL  XVI. 

The  devices  for  measuring  water  flowing  in  open 
ditches  differ  widely  from  those  employed  for 
measuring  in  pipes,  such  as  those  of  a  city  supply, 
where  various  forms  of  water  meters  are  utilized, 
nearly  all  of  these  requiring  a  decided  pressure 
and  rapid  flow.  The  water  in  irrigating  ditches 
has  usually  only  a  trifling  fall,  and  it  is  not  possi- 
ble to  obtain  a  head  or  pressure  of  more  than  a 
few  inches.  Any  measuring  device,  to  be  generally 
successful,  must  be  so  constructed  as  to  pass  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  water  flowing  at  low  velocity 
and  with  little  fall  or  loss  of  head.  An  apparatus 
of  this  kind  is  generally  known  as  a  module,  the 
name  being  derived  from  Italian  usage.  The 
term  has  not  come  into  general  use  in  the  United 
States,  but  the  measurements  of  water  from  ditches 
are  usually  spoken  of  as  being  made  through  boxes, 
flumes,  or  over  weirs.  The  device  in  use  which  may 
be  termed  "  module,"  and  the  one  most  generally 
employed,  is  that  for  measuring  the  miner's  fnch. 

This  unit,  the  miner's  inch,  is  the  one  most  used 
throughout  the  West  in  speaking  of  quantity  of 
water.  Irrigators  frequently  state  that  they  re- 
ceive so  many  miner's  inches,  or  that  to  irrigate 
ten  acres  it  is  necessary  to  have  8  miner's  inches. 
The  term,  although  common,  is  not  definite,  the 
actual  quantity  known  as  a  miner's  inch  differ- 
ing according  to  the  method  of  measurement. 


MINER'S   INCH.  123 

It  is  comparable  to  the  local  usage  of  the  word 
"  shilling,"  which  has  been  commonly  used  in  New 
England  to  mean  i6|  cents,  while  in  New  York 
it  has  been  equally  well  known  as  I2|  cents.  So 
the  miner's  inch  in  California  may  represent  a 
fiftieth  part  of  a  second-foot,  and  in  Arizona  a 
fortieth  part. 

The  miner's  inch  is  also  often  confused  with  the 
sectional  area  of  a  flowing  stream,  or  even  with 
the  number  of  cubic  inches  per  second.  In 
Utah,  for  example,  a  stream  20  inches  wide 
and  3  inches  deep  has  been  incorrectly  described 
as  discharging  60  miner's  inches,  because  the 
width  multiplied  by  the  depth  gives  this  number  of 
square  inches.  The  term,  although  indefinite,  has 
entered  so  largely  into  popular  usage  that  it  can- 
not be  easily  abandoned,  and  it  may  be  retained  to 
advantage  if  defined  as  a  certain  definite  part  of 
the  second-foot. 

The  miner's  inch,  as  the  name  implies,  is  a  unit 
of  measurement  borrowed  from  the  miners,  who 
first  took  out  the  water  of  flowing  streams,  con- 
ducted it  through  ditches  or  flumes,  and  divided  it 
among  themselves.  The  apportioning  of  water 
was  found  to  be  most  easily  done  by  cutting  a 
rectangular  hole  in  the  side  of  a  flume  and  allow- 
ing a  certain  quantity  of  water  to  flow  through 
this  aperture.  The  amount  discharged  depends 
not  only  upon  the  size  and  shape  of  the  hole,  but 
also  upon  the  pressure  or  height  of  water  standing 


124  IRRIGATION. 

behind  the  aperture.  That  is  to  say,  more  water 
will  flow  through  a  hole  an  inch  square  if  behind 
this  hole  the  water  is  standing  6  inches  deep,  than 
will  be  discharged  if  the  water  is  only  4  inches  deep. 
In  the  same  way,  less  water  will  flow  through  an 
aperture  10  inches  wide  and  i  inch  high  than 
through  an  aperture  I  inch  wide  and  10  inches 
high,  the  water  standing  the  same  depth  above  the 
top  of  the  hole.  These  simple  facts  are  often 
overlooked,  and  the  laws  prescribing  how  the 
miner's  inch  shall  be  measured  frequently  omit 
necessary  qualifications.  Exact  justice  cannot  be 
done  to  all  persons  obtaining  water  by  this  form 
of  measurement. 

The  accompanying  drawing  (Fig.  30)  illustrates 
a  simple  form  of  a  device  for  measuring  miner's 
inches.  This  consists  of  a  flume,  in  the  end  of 
which  is  placed  a  partition  with  an  aperture  closed 
by  a  sliding  bar  or  gate,  marked  B.  Water  flow- 
ing in  the  flume  passes  out  through  the  orifice, 
which  in  this  case  is  2  inches  high  and  of  a 
width  dependent  upon  the  space  opened  by  the 
sliding  gate.  Above  the  top  of  the  orifice  is  a 
plank  5  inches  wide.  To  measure  the  flow  in 
the  flume,  the  sliding  gate'  B  is  pushed  in  until 
the  water  stands  at  the  top  of  the  end  plank  and 
is  on  the  point  of  overflowing.  When  this  occurs, 
the  pressure  or  head  is  exactly  5  inches,  and  the 
size  of  the  orifice  in  square  inches  gives  the  equiva- 
lent number  of  miner's  inches  flowing  in  the  box. 


MEASURING   MINER'S   INCHES. 


125 


In  the  example  shown,  the  gate  is  drawn  open 
43.5  inches,  and  as  it  is  2  inches  high,  the  whole 
flow  is  87  miner's  inches. 

In  case  it  is  desired  to  measure  out  a  certain 
amount  of  water,  the  gate  B  can  be  set  at  this 


FIG.  30.  —  Flume  for  measuring  miner's  inches. 

quantity,  and  a  gate  above,  marked  A,  adjusted  so 
as  to  bring  the  height  of  the  water  in  the  measur- 
ing box  to  the  point  where  it  nearly  overflows  the 
end  plank.  In  this  way  small  quantities  of  water 
can  be  divided  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  ordinary 
purposes.  If,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  measure 
greater  quantities,  and  the  orifice  cannot  be  made 
long  enough  to  accommodate  these,  it  is  necessary 
to  make  it  higher,  increasing  it,  say,  from  2  inches 


126  IRRIGATION. 

in  height  to  10;  there  will  then  flow  through  such 
an  orifice  more  than  five  times  as  much  water  for 
a  given  width  of  opening.  Thus,  in  attempting  to 
measure  large  quantities  of  water  in  this  way,  seri- 
ous errors  are  introduced  in  favor  of  the  large  users 
of  water. 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  attempting  to 
measure  a  constant  volume  by  this  apparatus  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  in  many  ditches  and  streams 
there  are  occasional  and  rapid  fluctuations  of  the 
height  of  water.  When  the  height  increases,  a 
larger  amount  will  be  discharged  from  the  orifice; 
and  when  it  falls,  a  less  amount.  To  secure  a  con- 
stant head  or  pressure  a  number  of  devices  have 
been  made,  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  which 
's  that  invented  by  Mr.  A.  D.  Foote.  The  meas- 
uring box  (Fig.  31)  B  is  placed  by  the  side  of  the 
ditch  marked  A.  The  water  in  the  ditch  is  checked 
by  the  small  gate  D,  and  a  part  is  forced  to  flow 
through  the  gate  E,  raised  for  the  purpose,  filling 
the  box  B ;  the  desired  quantity  escapes  through 
the  aperture  F,  into  the  lateral  G.  Any  excess 
of  water  entering  B  spills  back  into  the  main  ditch 
at  C,  so  that  a  nearly  constant  head  can  be  main- 
tained behind  the  orifice  F. 

The  method  of  measuring  small  brooks  or  creeks 
is  illustrated  by  the  accompanying  figure  (32).  A 
stout  plank  is  placed  across  the  stream,  held  in 
position  by  stakes,  and  made  tight  by  tamping  c  lay 
on  the  up-stream  side,  so  that  water  cannot  pass 


MEASURING   BOX. 


127 


around  or  under  the  obstruction.  In  the  plank  is 
a  slot  of  sufficient  size  and  width  to  pass  the  ordi- 
nary discharge  of  the  stream.  This  slot  is  from 


FIG.  31.  —  Foote  measuring  box. 

4  to  6  inches  below  the  top  of  the  plank,  and  is 
closed  by  a  gate  or  board  sliding  in  front  of  the 
slot,  and  held  in  position  by  a  small  cleat  or  projec- 
tion passing  through  the  slot.  This  gate  is  gradu- 
ally closed  until  the  water  in  the  stream  is  about 


128 


IRRIGATION. 


to  overflow  the  plank ;  then  the  size  of  the  orifice 
gives  the  discharge  in  miner's  inches,  the  exact 
quantity  being  dependent  upon  the  head  of  water, 
or  height  above  the  top  of  the  slot,  and  its  relative 
proportions. 

The  standard  miner's  inch,  taking  the  arid  region 
as  a  whole,  may  be  considered  as  the  flow  through 


Fid.  32.  —  Method  of  measuring  miner's  inches  in  ditch. 

an  orifice  I  inch  square  with  a  head  or  pressure 
above  the  top  of  the  orifice  of  6  inches.  The 
actual  quantity  is  dependent  also  upon  the  thick- 
ness of  the  plank  or  plate  in  which  the  orifice  is 
made,  and  the  character  of  the  edges,  whether 
sharp  or  square.  It  has  been  estimated,  however, 
that  the  average  value  of  a  miner's  inch  of  this 
character  is  1.5  cubic  feet  per  minute,  or  .025  sec- 


VALUE   OF    MINER'S    INCH.  129 

ond-f oot,  —  in  other  words,  -fa  of  a  second-foot.  In 
different  counties  in  California  it  has  been  found 
in  use  to  range  from  .020  to  nearly  .030  second- 
foot.  In  Montana  a  method  of  measurement  in 
customary  use  was  through  an  orifice  I  inch  deep 
with  a  head  of  3^  inches  above  the  top.  This  has 
been  estimated  to  furnish  .021  second-foot. 

The  state  of  California  by  statute  has  prescribed 
that  the  miner's  inch  shall  be  a  fiftieth  part  of  a 
second-foot,  and  Arizona  by  court  decision  has  set- 
tled upon  a  fortieth  part.  In  Colorado  it  has  been 
stated  that  38.4  miner's  inches  made  a  second-foot, 
but  this  figure  has  been  based  on  a  single  deter- 
mination. It  is  sufficiently  exact  to  state  that  in 
this  state  40  miner's  inches  equal  a  second-foot. 

After  trying  many  devices,  the  engineers  and 
canal  superintendents  have,  as  a  rule,  usually 
adopted  some  form  of  open  flume  or  weir,  such  as 
that  described  on  page  99  in  connection  with 
the  discussion  of  river  measurements.  These  are 
least  likely  to  be  obstructed  by  floating  sticks 
or  weeds,  and  are  most  easily  kept  in  good  order. 
The  method  of  flume  measurement  consists  in 
measuring  the  width  and  depth  of  water  in  the 
flume,  and  in  ascertaining  by  floats  or  current 
meters  the  velocity  for  different  heights  of  water. 
By  so  doing  it  is  possible  to  construct  a  table  show- 
ing the  approximate  amount  of  water  flowing  in 
the  flume  when  it  is  I  inch  in  depth,  2  inches, 
3  inches,  and  so  on  up  to  the  full  capacity  of 


130  IRRIGATION. 

the  flume.  This  method  of  estimation  of  discharge 
is  known  as  rating  the  flume.  When  a  rating  table 
has  once  been  made,  it  is  usually  assumed  that  the 
relation  between  height  and  quantity  of  water  re- 
mains fairly  constant. 

For  flume  measurement  either  one  of  the  struc- 
tures needed  to  conduct  the  water  across  some 
depression  is  used,  or  short  sections  of  the  flume, 
at  least  sixteen  feet  in  length,  are  set  in  the 
canal  at  some  designated  point  especially  for  the 
purpose  of  making  the  measurement.  The  floor  is 
smoothly  laid  and  the  sides  are  made  either  vertical 
or  flaring,  the  width  of  the  bottom  of  the  flume 
being  the  same  as  that  of  the  ditch  both  above 
and  below,  the  cross-section  of  the  flume  being  as 
nearly  as  possible  similar  to  that  of  the  ditch.  A 
scale  is  permanently  marked  on  the  side  of  the 
flume,  so  as  to  give  the  depth  of  water  at  a 
glance.  The  construction  of  the  flume  should  be 
such  as  to  avoid  all  cross-currents  or  disturbance 
of  the  water,  the  object  being  to  make  a  portion  of 
the  canal  in  such  manner  that  the  sides  and  bot- 
tom will  be  smooth  and  permanent. 

To  insure  greater  accuracy  than  that  obtained 
in  the  ordinary  flumes,  various  forms  of  weirs  are 
used,  these  generally  having  complete  contraction 
at  the  sides  and  bottom,  as  shown  by  the  accom- 
panying diagrams  (Figs.  33,  34,  and  35).  In  the 
first  of  these  (Fig.  33)  a  rectangular  weir  is  shown, 
the  width  of  the  opening  being  such  as  to  contract 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XVII. 


A.     FLUME   ON    ROCKY  HILLSIDE. 


B-     FLUME  ACROSS   EARTH    IN   A   SIDEHILL  CUT. 


RECTANGULAR  WEIR.  131 

the  stream  on  both  sides  and  at  the  bottom,  the 
distance  AB  from  the  bottom  of  the  flume  or 
ditch  to  the  crest  of  the  weir  being  at  least  twice 
that  of  the  height  H  of  the  water  passing  over 
the  crest.  With  this  form  of  weir  it  is  possible 


FIG.  33.  —  Rectangular  weir. 

to  compute  the  discharge  by  use  of  the  simple 
formula  prepared  by  Mr.  James  B.  Francis,  from 
results  of  elaborate  experiments  carried  on  through 
many  years  in  the  canal  built  for  water  power  at 
Lowell,  Massachusetts.  The  discharge  in  cubic 
feet  per  second  is  3.33  times  the  length  in  feet  into 
the  height  in  feet  when  the  latter  quantity  has 
been  cubed,  or  multiplied  by  itself  twice  in  succes- 


132 


IRRIGATION. 


sion,  and  the  square  root  of  the  cube  been  taken. 
Or  in  other  words,  the  quantity  equals  3^  times 
the  length  into  the  three-half  power  of  the  height. 
In  this  statement  the  length  taken  is  what  is  known 
as  the  effective  length,  and  not  the  actual  meas- 
urement, the  measured  crest  being  reduced  by 
one-tenth  of  the  depth  of  the  water  //  for  each 
end  contraction. 


1 


I'll',.  34.  —  Trapezoidal  or  Cippoletti  weir. 

In  order  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  making  cor- 
rections for  the  end  contractions  of  a  weir,  an 
Italian  engineer,  Cesare  Cippoletti,  devised  a  trape- 
zoidal weir,  or  one  with  sloping  edges,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  34.  The  effective  length  in  this  case  corre- 
sponds to  the  actual  length  of  the  crest  of  the 
weir,  thus  obviating  the  necessity  of  making  an 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XVIII. 


TRAPEZOIDAL  WEIR. 


133 


allowance  in  the  computation    for   the   end   con- 
traction. 

Weirs  of  this  kind  have  been  placed  in  irrigation 
ditches,  and  the  height  of  water  noted  from  time 
to  time  by  means  of  the  gage  set  back  from  the 
crest.  It  is  possible  at  each  reading  of  the  height 


FIG.  35  — Trapezoidal  weir  with  self-recording  device. 

of  water  to  obtain  by  computation,  or  by  a  table 
constructed  for  the  purpose,  the  amount  flowing 
at  that  moment.  As  this  quantity  fluctuates,  it  is 
desirable  to  have  some  form  of  self-recording  gage, 
so  that  the  changes  which  have  taken  place  can  be 
known.  An  arrangement  of  this  kind  is  shown  in 
Fig-  35»  where  a  trapezoidal  or  Cippoletti  weir  has 


134  IRRIGATION. 

been  placed  at  the  end  of  a  short  flume  and  the 
small  recording  device  arranged  on  the  side  of  the 
flume.  As  the  water  rises  or  falls,  a  float  attached 
to  a  pencil  moves  up  or  down,  making  a  mark  on 
a  piece  of  paper  placed  upon  a  cylinder  or  dial  and 
driven  by  clockwork.  The  irregular  line  traced 
by  the  pencil  gives  a  complete  record  of  the  height 
of  the  water,  and  from  this  the  corresponding 
quantities  can  be  computed. 

FLUMES    AND    WOODEN      PIPES. 

If  the  ground  through  which  the  ditch  or  canal 
is  constructed  were  everywhere  a  gentle  slope  with 
well-rounded  curves,  it  would  be  a  comparatively 
easy  matter  to  dig  the  necessary  channel ;  but 
there  are  often  small  ravines  coming  into  the  main 
stream  from  each  side,  bringing  water  drained 
from  the  highland  surrounding  the  valley.  Some 
of  these  side  channels  are  very  deep  and  have  steep 
sides,  so  that  the  ditch  cannot  be  run  around  them 
or  continued  up  one  side  and  down  the  other.  It 
often  happens  also  that  the  water  of  these  side 
channels  is  utilized  by  farmers,  and  must  be  kept 
separate  from  that  in  the  ditch  under  considera- 
tion. Even  if  the  water  of  the  side  drainage  could 
otherwise  be  taken  into  the  ditch,  it  is  usually  in- 
expedient to  do  so,  because  local  storms  often  send 
down  these  channels  great  quantities  of  wau-r, 
carrying  sand,  gravel,  and  boulders,  and  these 
deposited  in  the  ditch  would  fill  it  up. 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XIX. 


SEMICIRCULAR  WOODEN   FLUME. 


FLUMES. 


135 


In  the  construction  of  nearly  every  conduit  of  this 
character  it  becomes  necessary  to  take  water  across 
a  depression.  This  is  generally  done  by  means  of  a 
flume,  or  long  box,  usually  rectangular  in  section. 
This  is  supported  by  a  frame  or  trestle  of  timber, 
the  lower  part  of 
which  rests  upon 
the  ground.  The 
vertical  elevation 
of  such  a  device 
is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  fig- 
ure (36),  which 
gives  the  general 
form  of  the  trestle 
with  its  cross-brac- 
ing, also  of  the 
flume,  which  is 
shown  with  the 
water  filling  it 
nearly  to  the  top. 

Such  flumes  are 
often  used  across 
rocky  ground 
where  it  is  im- 
practicable to  dig  a  ditch.  This  is  particularly 
the  case  near  the  head,  where  the  water  is  often 
taken  out  from  the  river  through  a  narrow,  steep- 
walled  canyon.  Here  the  foundation  for  a  flume 
is  prepared  along  the  rocky  cliffs,  supports  being 


FIG.  36.  —  Vertical  elevation  of  trestle  and 
flume. 


136  IRRIGATION. 

devised  to  suit  the  inequalities  of  the  ground. 
Plate  XVII,  A,  shows  one  of  these  flumes  built 
along  a  rocky  hillside. 

In  some  cases,  instead  of  a  rectangular,  box-like 
flume,  a  V-shaped  section,  shown  in  Fig.  48,  on 
page  184,  is  built,  economizing  lumber  and  obtaining 
a  greater  velocity.  Such  flumes  have  been  con- 
structed mainly  by  lumber  companies  for  trans- 
porting cordwood,  railroad  ties,  planks,  and  boards 
from  the  mountains  down  to  the  lower  lands,  the 
water  being  used  to  some  extent  in  irrigation.  A 
better  and  more  expensive  type  of  flume  is  that 
having  a  semicircular  section,  such  as  shown  in 
the  accompanying  view  (PL  XIX).  These  flumes 
are  built  of  narrow  planks  or  staves  laid  side  by 
side,  and  held  in  place  by  iron  bands  run  around 
under  the  flume  and  fastened  by  nuts  and  threads, 
by  which  the  bands  can  be  drawn  up  and  the 
staves  brought  together,  making  a  tight  joint. 

In  crossing  very  deep  depressions  it  is  necessary 
to  have  a  correspondingly  high  trestle,  in  order  to 
carry  the  flume  across  on  grade.  Such  high  tres- 
tles are  not  only  expensive,  but  are  liable  to  de- 
struction by  storms,  and  in  place  of  them  have 
been  built  what  are  known  as  inverted  siphons  or 
wooden  stave  pipes.  These  pipes  are  built  in  a 
manner  somewhat  similar  to  the  semicircular  flume, 
being  made  of  narrow  plank  carefully  planed  to  a 
given  dimension  and  held  in  place  by  circular  iron 
bands  or  hoops.  The  ends  of  these  hoops  are 


PLATE  XX. 


PIPE  UNDER  160-FOOT  HEAD,  SANTA  ANA  CANAL,  CALIFORNIA. 


B-    OLD  FLUME  AND  REDWOOD  PIPE  REPLACING  IT,  REDLANDS 
CANAL,   CALIFORNIA. 


INVERTED    SIPHONS. 


137 


brought  together  by  means  of  suitable  screws,  by 
which  the  hoops  can  be  made  smaller,  drawing  in 
the  staves  and  compressing  the  joints.  On  the 


Elevation. 


Plan. 


Cross -Section. 


FIG.  37.  —Siphon  passage  for  canal. 

accompanying  illustration  (PL  XX,  A)  one  of  these 
wooden  pipes  is  shown  supported  on  a  low  trestle, 
the  ends  of  the  iron  bands  appearing  as  projections 


138  IRRIGATION. 

regularly  arranged  around  the  pipe.  On  PL  XX,  B, 
is  shown  an  old  wooden  flume  of  the  ordinary  type, 
and  in  the  foreground  a  redwood  stave  pipe 
replacing  it.  A  similar  wooden  pipe  is  shown  on 
PI.  LI  1 1,  and  an  open  semicircular  flume  on  PL 
XXII,  A. 

Inverted  siphons,  whether  of  wood  or  masonry, 
are  used  to  carry  a  canal  under  a  side  channel  in- 
stead of  over  it.  Figure  37  shows  a  masonry  struc- 
ture built  beneath  the  bed  of  a  torrential  stream. 
In  the  upper  part  of  the  figure  is  a  longitudinal 
section,  the  course  of  the  water  in  the  stream  chan- 
nel being  shown  by  the  arrows.  In  the  middle  of 
the  figure  is  the  plan  showing  a  dividing  wall  for 
supporting  the  masonry  roof  of  the  inverted  siphon. 
At  the  bottom  of  the  figure  is  a  cross-section  of 
the  central  part  of  the  structure,  showing  the  siphon 
passing  under  the  stream  through  the  two  channels 
formed  by  the  dividing  wall. 

TUNNELS. 

Where  the  ground  is  so  irregular  that  it  is  im- 
practicable to  build  flumes,  recourse  must  be  had  to 
tunnels.  These  are  usually  short,  cutting  through 
rocky  spurs.  An  excellent  example  of  work  of  this 
character  is  that  along  Bear  River  in  Utah,  near  the 
head  of  the  canal  taking  water  from  the  canyon 
below  Cache  Valley,  shown  on  PL  LV.  The 
rocky  walls  are  so  steep  that  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  excavate  a  canal  partly  in  the  walls 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXI. 


A.    TUNNEL  ON  TURLOCK   CANAL,    CALIFORNIA. 


«  B.     TUNNEL    IN    EARTH    ON    CROCKER-HUFFMAN    CANAL. 

CALIFORNIA. 


TUNNELS.  139 

and  partly  piercing  projecting  portions,  making 
a  substantial  masonry  structure. 

Similar  methods  have  been  employed  on  the 
Turlock  Canal  in  California,  where  a  series  of  short 
tunnels  alternate  with  open  side-hill  cutting  as 
shown  on  PI.  XXI,  A.  Farther  along  the  line  of 
the  canal  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  make  an 
underground  passage  to  avoid  a  deep  cut.  Such 
a  tunnel  is  illustrated  at  B  on  the  same  plate,  this 
being  on  the  Crocker-Huffman  Canal,  which  takes 
water  from  Merced  River,  California.  This  skirts 
the  base  of  the  foothills  on  the  south  side  of  the 
river,  and  reaches  the  upland  above  the  town  of 
Merced. 

These  tunnels,  when  built  through  solid  rock,  do 
not  require  lining,  but  in  many  situations  they  must 
be  supported  by  masonry  or  substantial  brickwork, 
although  in  a  few  instances  temporary  wooden  sup- 
ports are  preferred.  In  order  to  increase  the  ve- 
locity through  the  tunnel  and  thus  reduce  its  area 
for  a  given  volume  of  flow,  a  smooth  concrete  lin- 
ing is  usually  provided  for  the  bottom  and  sides. 

LINING    OF    CANALS. 

In  portions  of  the  United  States  where  frosts  do 
not  occur  to  any  considerable  extent  and  where 
water  has  greatest  value,  experience  has  shown 
that  it  is  desirable  to  line  the  ditches  and  canals 
with  concrete  or  cement,  thus  reducing  loss  by  per- 
colation and  making  the  channel  so  smooth  that 


140 


IRRIGATION. 


the  water  moves  rapidly  even  on  slight  grades. 
Often  it  is  possible  to  trim  the  banks  of  the 
ditches  to  a  uniform  surface,  and  this  is  found  to 
be  sufficiently  firm  to  serve  as  a  foundation  upon 
which  to  put  a  layer  of  cement  mixed  with  sand 
and  having  a  thickness  of  from  |  of  an  inch  to  i.] 
inches.  Where  the  bed  and  banks  are  not  firm,  it 


t's' 


i 

— — —  f    0  ft 

I  I 

Fin.  38.  —  Section  of  cement-lined  ditch  with  stop  gate. 


is  necessary  to  pave  or  revet  them  with  small  stone, 
and  then  place  upon  this  a  coat  of  concrete  made 
of  small  gravel  and  sand.  The  economy  of  water 
resulting  from  this  careful  construction  has  been 
found  to  be  sufficiently  large  to  justify  a  consider- 
able outlay.  The  accompanying  figure  (38)  shows 
a  portion  of  a  ditch  lined  with  small  stone  covered 
with  cement,  and  in  this  a  stop  gate  for  the  purpose 
of  regulating  the  flow.  This  gate  is  hung  at  the 


CEMENT   LINING   OF  DITCHES.  141 

points  marked  a,  and  can  be  swung  up  out  of  the 
way  when  not  needed  to  check  the  water  and  raise 
it  so  that  it  will  flow  out  into  lateral  distributing 
ditches  or  furrows. 

The  accompanying  illustration  (PL  XXII,  B)  also 
gives  a  view  of  a  portion  of  the  Santa  Ana  Canal 
in  Southern  California  as  completed,  with  a  lining 
of  boulders  roughly  broken  into  shape  and  laid  in 
cement  mortar.  The  walls  were  first  built  against 
the  sloping  sides  of  the  excavation,  which  was  made 
in  hard  clay  and  natural  cement  gravel.  These 
side  slopes  were  generally  2  feet  vertical  to  i  hori- 
zontal. The  bottom  or  invert  was  paved  and  the 
chinks  were  filled  with  coarse  sand  and  spalls,  with 
a  layer  of  mortar  roughly  bedded  on  top.  On  this 
was  laid  the  cement-plaster  lining.  The  walls  were 
laid  with  considerable  care,  giving  a  rough  surface. 
They  were  from  16  to  20  inches  thick  on  the  bottom 
and  from  8  to  10  inches  thick  on  the  top.  In  the 
view  the  width  of  the  finished  section  is  12.5  feet 
on  top  and  7.5  feet  deep  at  the  centre. 

EROSION   AND    SEDIMENTATION    IN    CANALS. 

Since  the  greater  part  of  the  water  used  in  ir- 
rigation must  for  economy  be  conducted  by  gravity, 
it  is  necessary  to  consider  carefully  the  slopes  to 
be  given  the  conduits.  This  is  especially  true 
where  a  broad  valley  is  to  be  irrigated  from  a 
stream  whose  upper  course  is  only  a  few  feet 
above  the  general  level  of  the  land.  If  the  grade 


142  IRRIGATION. 

is  steep,  it  will  either  be  necessary  to  lengthen  the 
canal  or  to  take  water  only  to  the  lower  land,  leav- 
ing the  higher  portions  of  the  valley  dry.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  very  gentle  grade  is  given,  the 
water  will  flow  slowly,  and  a  very  wide  canal  must 
be  built  to  carry  the  necessary  volume. 

Equally  important  as  the  consideration  of  the 
relative  height  of  the  source  of  the  water  and 
the  land  to  be  irrigated,  if  not  more  so,  are  the 
effects  of  the  slope  of  the  canal  upon  the  velocity 
of  the  water  and  the  consequent  cutting  or  filling 
of  its  channel.  With  steep  grade  the  water  moves 
with  such  rapidity  as  to  pick  up  and  carry  along 
fine  particles,  and  with  increasing  velocity  larger 
and  larger  grains  of  sand  or  pebbles  are  moved, 
eroding  the  channel  and  carrying  the  loose  mate- 
rial to  points  where  it  may  be  a  source  of  annoy- 
ance or  injury.  The  power  of  the  stream  to  cut 
its  bottom  and  sides  increases  very  rapidly  with 
higher  velocities.  Experiments  indicate  that  by 
doubling  the  velocity  of  the  stream  its  power  to 
carry  is  not  merely  doubled  but  is  increased  sixty- 
four  times ;  thus  a  very  slight  change  in  the  rate 
at  which  water  flows  makes  a  very  great  difference 
in  its  behavior  as  regards  carrying  or  depositing 
loose  materials. 

When,  because  of  its  great  velocity,  water  has 
taken  up  and  is  carrying  silt,  sand,  or  gravel,  and 
the  velocity  is  reduced  in  any  way,  the  heavier 
particles  are  immediately  dropped.  A  torrential 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXII. 


A.     SEMICIRCULAR    FLUME    IN   SANTA   ANA  CANAL,   CALIFORNIA. 


B.     CEMENT   LINING  OF  SANTA   ANA   CANAL.    CALIFORNIA. 


SEDIMENTATION.  143 

stream,  entering  a  pond  or  reservoir,  deposits  at 
once  the  boulders  or  gravel,  then  the  sand,  this 
being  dropped  a  little  farther  on,  and  finally  the 
clay  or  silt  in  the  broader,  stiller  portions.  A 
similar  condition  occurs  in  a  ditch  or  a  canal. 
Water  from  the  river  is  sometimes  muddy,  espe- 
cially in  times  of  flood.  On  entering  the  canal, 
if  the  velocity  is  reduced  at  any  point,  some  of 
this  material  will  settle,  forming  a  deposit  along 
the  sides  or  bottom.  In  this  way  the  enlarged 
portions  of  the  canal,  such  as  a  little  embayment 
along  its  sides,  will  be  gradually  filled  with  sand 
or  mud,  the  tendency  being  for  a  stream  of  uni- 
form grade  and  volume  to  fill  in  the  depressions 
or  nooks  along  its  course  and  to  wear  away  pro- 
jecting points  or  obstructions. 

If,  for  a  given  volume  of  water,  the  cross-sec- 
tion of  a  portion  of  a  canal  is  too  large,  the  velocity 
will  be  checked  and  sediment  deposited,  reducing 
the  size  of  the  channel  until  this  reduced  area 
reacts  by  causing  a  slight  increase  in  the  velocity 
of  the  water.  In  other  words,  the  flowing  water 
tends  to  enlarge  obstructions  and  to  fill  up  and 
reduce  the  channels  which  are  too  capacious  for 
its  volume.  Such  a  result  is  seen  in  the  accom- 
panying figure  (39),  where  the  broken  lines  show 
the  original  slope  of  the  ground,  and  also  the  form 
of  the  canal.  The  flowing  stream  has  gradually 
deposited  mud  and  sand  on  each  side,  as  shown 
by  the  dotted  portions  of  the  drawing,  diminishing 


144  IRRIGATION. 

the  area  of  the  cross-section  to  a  point  where  the 
water  is  forced  to  maintain  its  velocity  and  con- 
tinue to  carry  the  sediment. 


"  -^/***7' 

"™''' 


FIG.  39.  —  Cross-section  of  canal  partly  filled  with  sediment. 

Some  rivers,  such  as  the  Rio  Grande,  transport 
so  large  a  volume  of  earth  that  the  canals  and 
ditches  leading  from  the  stream  are  quickly  filled, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  clean  out  the  mud  at  short 
intervals.  The  view,  PI.  XIII,  B,  shows  one  of 
these  ditches  with  the  mud  piled  high  on  each 
side,  the  result  of  the  annual  cleaning  of  the  ditch. 
The  cost  of  removing  the  sediment  is  often  a 
large  item  in  the  operating  expenses.  For  clean- 
ing very  large  canals  and  for  enlarging  them, 
dredges  have  been  used  similar  to  that  shown 
on  PI.  XIV.  These  float  along  the  canal  as  the 
material  is  dug  out  from  the  bottom  and  sides. 
By  means  of  such  a  device  a  canal  can  be  cleaned 
while  in  use,  otherwise  it  is  necessary  to  shut  the 
water  off  and  allow  the  bottom  to  become  suffi- 
ciently dry  for  horses  and  men  to  work  in  it. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  grade  of  a  canal  is 
so  steep  as  to  erode  the  sides  and  bottom,  some 
method  must  be  taken  to  prevent  this,  for  damage 
results  in  several  ways.  The  erosion  of  the  bot- 


EXCESSIVE   GRADES.  145 

torn  gradually  reduces  the  level  of  the  water  in  the 
ditch,  and  the  material  carried  along  is  finally  de- 
posited at  some  place  where  it  may  choke  the 
ditches  or  cover  fertile  land.  The  removal  of 
fine  material  leaves  the  bed  open  and  porous, 
the  water  escaping  by  percolation.  The  losses  in 
this  direction  are  prevented  where  the  conditions 
are  such  that  a  small  amount  of  silt  is  deposited 
and  remains,  filling  or  cementing  the  minute  open- 
ings through  which  water  would  otherwise  escape. 
The  difficulties  resulting  from  excessive  grade  of 
a  canal  are  remedied  by  building  what  are  known 
as  "drops,"  two  of  these  being  shown  on  PL 
XXIII.  They  consist  of  suitable  arrangements 
for  the  water  to  fall  over  low  dams  or  weirs  upon 
solid  rock,  or  into  a  deep  pool,  where  the  force 
of  the  water  will  be  expended  without  injury  to  the 
canal. 

For  very  small  ditches  a  great  slope  can  be 
used,  since  the  volume  of  water  is  not  sufficient  to 
move  the  large  particles  of  sand  and  gravel;  for 
example,  on  the  farm  lateral,  carrying  i  or  2  sec- 
ond-feet, a  fall  of  50  feet  or  more  to  the  mile  may 
not  be  excessive,  the  velocity  being  retarded  by 
the  relatively  great  friction.  On  the  other  ex- 
treme, a  large  irrigation  canal  carrying  1000  sec- 
ond-feet may  be  in  danger  of  injury  if  a  grade  of 
much  over  6  inches  to  the  mile  is  given  it. 

As  a  general  rule  it  may  be  said  that  conduits 
of  this  character  built  in  common  earth  should  be 

L 


146  IRRIGATION. 

so  proportioned  as  to  have  an  average  velocity  of 
a  little  less  than  3  feet  per  second,  or  2  miles  per 
hour,  when  carrying  their  full  capacity.  It  is  nec- 
essary, therefore,  to  take  into  consideration  the 
amount  of  water  to  be  carried,  and  from  this  de- 
duce the  size  and  shape  of  the  cross-section  of  the 
canal  or  ditch,  in  order  to  obtain  its  velocity. 

Many  of  the  older  irrigation  works  laid  out  by 
crude  devices,  such  as  a  large  triangle  and  plumb- 
line,  have  been  given  an  excessive  grade  through 
fear  on  the  part  of  the  builders  of  getting  too  little 
fall.  Some  of  these  are  as  much  as  50  feet  to 
the  mile,  giving  a  velocity  of  the  water  of  5  feet 
per  second,  washing  the  bed  of  the  channel  and 
leaving  only  a  mass  of  cobbles.  The  seepage 
through  this  material,  even  if  the  water  is  flowing 
rapidly,  has  been  known  in  one  instance  to  be  over 
20  per  cent  of  the  total  flow  in  a  course  of  four 
miles. 

Where  the  grade  of  a  ditch  is  so  small  that  the 
water  is  flowing  very  gently,  the  conditions  are 
sometimes  favorable  to  the  growth  of  aquatic 
weeds  or  grasses.  Under  the  bright  sunlight  the 
water  is  warmed,  and  the  development  of  these 
plants  sometimes  reaches  such  an  extent  as  to 
completely  fill  the  ditch.  The  water  must  then 
be  turned  out  and  the  plants  cut  and  thrown  out 
upon  the  bank.  Sometimes,  where  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  shut  off  the  water,  the  weeds  are  raked 
out,  or  even  mowed  under  water.  In  any  case  a 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXIII. 


A.     DROP   IN   AN   ARIZONA  CANAL. 


B.    CHECK   WEIR   AND   DROP. 


AQUATIC   PLANTS.  147 

considerable  amount  of  time  and  labor  must  be 
given  to  keeping  these  gently  flowing  streams  free 
from  obstruction.  For  this  reason  it  is  desirable 
to  give  ditches  such  a  fall  that  they  will  keep 
themselves  clean  and  yet  will  not  erode  their  bot- 
toms. This  is  a  difficult  matter  to  estimate,  since 
the  velocity  of  the  water  varies  greatly  at  different 
stages,  and  the  soils  encountered  by  the  ditch  may 
range  from  gravels  to  the  finest  clays  or  silts. 

In  very  muddy  waters  many  of  the  aquatic 
plants  do  not  develop,  so  that  there  is  frequently 
an  advantage  in  this  respect,  in  addition  to  the 
value  of  turbid  waters  in  fertilizing  the  fields.  If 
the  silt  can  be  retained  in  suspension,  not  dropped 
in  the  ditch  to  fill  it  up,  and  be  carried  out  to  the 
fields  of  the  farmer,  the  fine  material  left  here  on 
the  surface  may  have  considerable  value  in  enrich- 
ing the  soil.  The  muddy  waters  frequently  carry 
a  considerable  amount  of  organic  matter  and  nitro- 
gen in  form  available  for  plant  use.  It  has  been 
estimated,  from  chemical  analysis,  that  the  mud 
deposited  on  irrigated  lands  of  Salt  River  Valley, 
Arizona,  is  equivalent  in  richness  to  fertilizers 
valued  at  $8  per  acre.  That  is  to  say,  if  the  irri- 
gators  of  this  valley  were  forced  to  purchase  and 
apply  to  their  farms  commercial  fertilizer  of  equal 
strength,  it  would  cost  $8  per  acre.  As  compared 
with  clear  water  obtained  from  artesian  wells,  the 
muddy  water  possesses  certain  advantages.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  frequently  carries  with  it  noxious 


148  IRRIGATION. 

seeds,  and  in  extreme  conditions  may  injure  young 
vegetation  by  covering  the  leaves  with  slimy  mud. 

The  greater  part  of  the  silt  brought  down  by 
the  rivers  and  carried  out  in  the  ditches  occurs  in 
times  of  flood,  when  there  is  ample  supply  of  water, 
and  when,  by  running  the  ditches  full  and  at  high 
velocity,  the  material  can  be  carried  through  to 
the  fields.  Later  in  the  year  the  waters  usually 
become  clear,  unless  the  upper  catchment  basins 
have  been  denuded  of  their  grasses  and  shubbery 
by  overgrazing.  In  some  localities  the  great 
bands  of  sheep,  as  shown  on  PL  VI,  7>,  have  so 
completely  eaten  up  the  vegetation,  and  the  ground 
has  been  so  thoroughly  pulverized  by  the  small, 
sharp  feet  of  the  sheep,  that  every  local  rain  brings 
down  great  quantities  of  soil,  filling  the  ditches 
and  keeping  the  water  muddy. 

The  losses  of  water  in  canals  through  seepage 
and  evaporation  are  frequently  very  great  and 
have  amounted  to  over  one  half  the  quantity 
received.  The  evaporation  losses  may  be  reduced 
slightly  by  increasing  the  velocity  of  the  water, 
and  thus  shortening  the  time  in  transit.  Seepage 
can  be  largely  prevented,  as  above  noted,  by  a 
cement  lining,  or  by  the  deposition  of  the  fine  silt, 
which,  when  not  in  excess,  is  thus  of  great  use  and 
value. 


CHAPTER   V. 

RESERVOIRS. 

WHEREVER  lakes,  ponds,  or  large  marshes  occur 
on  the  head  waters  or  along  the  course  of  a  stream, 
fluctuations  of  the  volume  are  to  a  large  extent 
prevented.  After  a  heavy  rain  the  water,  seeking 
the  drainage  lines,  tends  to  flow  off  rapidly,  but 
first  fills  the  ponds;  these  overflow  gradually,  in- 
creasing the  volume  of  the  river,  so  that,  instead 
of  passing  off  as  a  violent  flood  of  a  few  hours' 
duration,  the  storm  results  in  the  gradually  in- 
creasing flow  of  a  large  volume  of  water  in  the 
river  through  days  or  even  weeks. 

The  natural  regulation  of  the  flow  can  be  fur- 
ther improved  by  placing  obstructions  at  the  out- 
lets of  these  ponds,  in  order  to  hold  the  water 
when  not  needed  in  the  river  below.  This  has 
been  done  to  a  considerable  extent  for  water- 
power  development  and  for  mining  purposes. 
Natural  lakes  are,  however,  comparatively  rare  on 
the  head  waters  of  most  streams  useful  in  irriga- 
tion. Among  the  high  mountains,  especially 
under  the  peaks  from  which  glaciers  have  issued, 
there  are  some  ponds  whose  outlets  can  be  closed 

149 


150  IRRIGATION. 

at  small  expense ;  but  the  water  coming  from 
these  is  almost  insignificant  in  comparison  with 
that  which  occurs  lower  down. 

In  the  course  of  a  river  issuing  from  mountains, 
there  are  occasionally  found  broad  valleys  from 
which  the  water  escapes  through  narrow  canyons. 
These  have  resulted  from  the  erosion  of  soft  rocks, 
or  more  often  from  the  disturbance  of  the  drainage 
due  to  the  uplifting  of  a  part  of  the  earth's 
crust,  or  by  the  outpouring  of  lava,  or  the  forma- 
tion of  basaltic  dykes. 

It  is  apparent  that,  by  closing  the  outlets  of 
some  of  these  valleys,  the  processes  of  nature  can 
be  imitated  in  regulating  the  flow  of  the  streams. 
The  flood  waters  can  be  held  behind  the  artificial 
barrier,  such  as  that  shown  on  PL  XXIV,  and  let 
out  through  gates  whenever  needed  for  power  or 
for  watering  agricultural  lands.  At  first  sight  it 
appears  to  be  an  easy  matter  to  accomplish  this, 
and  throughout  the  arid  region  there  are  reported 
to  be  innumerable  localities  suitable  for  water  stor- 
age. An  examination  of  these,  however,  leads  to 
many  disappointments,  as  there  must  be  a  combi- 
nation of  several  features  to  insure  the  practica- 
bility of  reservoir  construction. 

REQUIREMENTS   FOR   WATER   STORAGE. 

The  requirements  for  successful  water  storage 
on  any  considerable  scale  are :  an  abundance  of 
water  to  be  stored,  capacity  in  which  to  hold  this, 


WATER    STORAGE.  151 

favorable  situation  for  a  dam,  and  suitable  material 
for  its  construction,  and  also  reasonable  cost  of 
labor,  material,  and  land,  if  any  is  purchased  for 
right  of  way  or  flooding. 

The  amount  of  water  to  be  stored  should  in  all 
cases  be  ascertained  in  advance  by  careful  meas- 
urements made  through  a  number  of  seasons  at  the 
point  where  the  water  is  to  be  held.  Disappoint- 
ment and  financial  loss  have  resulted  from  assum- 
ing that  there  will  undoubtedly  be  plenty  of  water, 
or  by  taking  the  statements  of  the  "  oldest  inhabit- 
ants "  to  this  effect.  It  is  impossible  to  judge  by 
the  eye  as  to  the  volume  of  a  flood.  One  which  is 
particularly  destructive  and  impressive  in  its  appar- 
ent magnitude  may,  upon  careful  measurement,  be 
found  to  have  discharged  an  amount  far  less  than 
anticipated.  The  intensity  of  the  flood,  or  rapidity 
with  which  it  moves,  often  gives  an  exaggerated 
idea  of  its  volume. 

Many  serious  blunders  have  been  made  because 
of  lack  of  definite  information  concerning  the  water 
supply.  Persons  dwelling  along  the  bank  of  a 
stream  often  entertain  absurd  notions  concerning 
the  quantity  flowing  at  ordinary  or  high  stages. 
They  have  no  means  of  forming  a  correct  concep- 
tion of  volume,  and  will  confidently  assert  that 
there  is  enough  water  to  irrigate  a  million  acres, 
when,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  there  may  be  sufficient 
for  only  ten  thousand.  The  investor,  and  even  the 
engineer  visiting  the  locality,  may  become  infected 


152  IRRIGATION. 

with  this  optimistic  spirit,  and  consider  useless  any 
further  delay  or  expenditure  to  ascertain  the  fluctua- 
tions of  the  stream.  Being  impatient  to  begin  work, 
they  will  take  the  statements  of  the  people,  and 
base  their  plans  upon  these. 

In  a  well-known  instance  of  the  construction  of 
a  large  storage  dam  which  was  under  consideration 
for  ten  years  or  more,  no  measurements  of  volume 
of  water  were  made,  but  when  the  constructing  en- 
gineers were  employed  they  were  assured  that  the 
stream  at  that  time  was  at  a  low  stage.  It  was 
then  carrying  2000  second-feet  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  it  was  really  in  moderate  flood,  and  the  low- 
water  flow,  six  months  earlier  or  later,  was  less 
than  one-tenth  of  this  quantity.  The  structure  was 
planned  and  built  without  further  delay,  as  the 
engineers  did  not  consider  that  they  had  any 
duties  beyond  putting  up  the  desired  structure ; 
but  when  finished,  disappointment  and  loss  of  in- 
vestment resulted,  it  being  then  found  that  there 
was  not  enough  water. 

The  actual  capacity  of  a  proposed  reservoir  site 
is  also  often  found  to  be  disappointing  upon  care- 
ful survey.  In  going  into  the  mountains  where 
the  slopes  are  steep,  the  eye  is  misled  as  to  slight 
inclinations  of  surface.  Valleys  which  seem  to  be 
flat  are  often  found,  when  a  levelling  instrument  is 
used,  to  be  decidedly  inclined,  and  instead  of  a 
dam  100  feet  high  backing  up  the  water  three 
miles,  as  at  first  estimated,  it  is  not  unusual  to 


RESERVOIR   CAPACITY. 


153 


discover     that     the 
water  will  be  ponded 
for    a    distance    of 
only  one  mile.      In 
short,    many    locali- 
ties which  upon  the 
first    search    are 
thought  to  be  desir- 
able are  la- 
ter found 
to  have  less 
capacity 
than  antic- 
ipated.    It  is  essential,  there- 
fore, to  follow  the  preliminary 
examination  by  mapping  each 
proposed  reservoir  site. 

The  accompanying  draw- 
ing (Fig.  40)  shows  in  re- 
duced form  a  map  of  this 
character.  The  Land  Office 
lines  are  shown  by  the  rec- 
tangles, each  of  these  indicat- 
ing forty  acres.  Four  of 
these  make  a  quarter-section. 
The  centre  of  each  whole 
section  is  indicated  by  the 
symbols,  Sec.  4,  Sec.  5,  etc. 
The  dam  site  is  in  the  lower 
right-hand  corner  of  the  draw- 


FIG.  40.  —  Map  of  a  reservoir. 


154  IRRIGATION. 

ing,  where  the  contour  lines  come  closely  together, 
indicating  a  steep,  narrow  outlet.  The  first  or 
lowest  contour  shows  the  location  of  all  points 
10  feet  above  the  stream  at  the  dam  site.  The 
next  contour,  marked  20  feet,  gives  points  20 
feet  above  the  bottom,  or  which  form  the  shore 
when  the  reservoir  is  filled  to  a  depth  of  20  feet. 
The  highest  contour  is  75  feet,  and  indicates  the 
outline  of  the  reservoir  when  filled  to  this  depth. 
Where  the  contours  run  together  the  banks  are 
steep,  and  where  they  are  far  apart  the  slope  is 
gentle.  From  a  map  of  this  character  it  is  possi- 
ble to  ascertain  the  area  and  capacity  of  the  reser- 
voir for  all  depths. 

If  there  is  plenty  of  water,  and  a  place  in  which 
to  hold  it,  the  next  question  is  the  feasibility  of 
building  a  dam.  Every  consideration  demands 
that  this  structure  should  be  made  absolutely  safe, 
and  therefore  the  most  substantial  masonry  is 
usually  recommended.  This  must  be  founded 
upon  bed  rock  and  extended  at  each  side  into  the 
solid  walls  of  the  canyon  or  gorge. 

Where  a  river  escapes  from  a  valley  through  a 
narrow  rocky  cut,  it  might  be  and  frequently  is 
assumed  that  the  water  would  keep  this  gorge 
washed  clean  and  flow  over  bed  rock,  but  this  is 
rarely  the  case.  At  present,  in  the  arid  regions, 
the  bottoms  of  nearly  all  the  canyons  are  filled  to 
a  considerable  depth  with  loose  material.  In  the 
earlier  ages  the  rivers,  probably  having  more 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXIV. 


FOUNDATIONS   OF   DAMS.  155 

water,  cut  down  into  solid  rock,  and  later,  receiving 
a  less  supply,  became  overloaded  with  gravel  and 
boulders  during  flood  time,  and  have  left  these 
scattered  all  along  the  course,  even  in  the  narrow- 
est places.  This  deposit  of  gravel  and  boulders, 
some  of  them  weighing  tons,  usually  has  a  thick- 
ness of  from  20  to  100  feet  or  more.  The  founda- 
tion of  a  masonry  dam  must  extend  beneath  all 
of  this  loose  material,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
expense  is  often  incurred  on  that  portion  of  the 
structure  which  is  out  of  sight  beneath  the  surface. 

The  clearing  out  of  the  debris  in  order  to  place 
the  foundation  upon  bed  rock  offers  many  difficul- 
ties, since  the  stream  must  be  passed  over  or 
around  the  work,  and  the  latter  kept  sufficiently 
dry  for  the  quarrying  and  stone-laying  to  proceed. 
With  a  depth  of  50  feet  or  more,  the  cost  of  con- 
trolling the  water,  especially  if  floods  occur,  may 
become  so  great  as  to  be  prohibitory  to  the  enter- 
prise. The  bed  rock  itself  may  be  weak  or  partly 
disintegrated,  and  all  of  this  loose  or  seamy  mate- 
rial must  be  taken  out  to  insure  a  perfectly  water- 
tight joint. 

In  carrying  up  the  masonry  structure  from  the 
bottom,  a  trench  is  cut  into  the  side  walls  as  far  as 
open  fissures  or  cracks  extend,  and  care  taken  to 
make  such  a  perfect  joint  between  the  dam  and 
the  rock  that  no  leaks  may  occur.  A  small  amount 
of  water  working  its  way  under  or  around  the  dam 
will  sooner  or  later  wear  out  or  dissolve  a  large 


156  IRRIGATION. 

hole  and  weaken  the  structure,  if  it  does  not  de- 
stroy it. 

Besides  these  fundamental  requirements  there 
are  others,  such  as  cost  of  cement,  which  is  largely 
governed  by  the  distance  it  must  be  hauled  from 
the  main  line  of  railroad,  facilities  for  obtaining 
labor,  and  the  value  of  the  land  or  other  property 
taken  for  the  reservoir  and  dam  site.  All  of  these 
items  must  be  carefully  considered  in  connection 
with  the  value  of  the  water  when  stored.  This 
latter  item  is  dependent  upon  the  kind  of  crops  to 
be  raised  and  similar  considerations.  When  all  of 
these  matters  have  been  taken  into  account,  out 
of  a  dozen  reservoir  sites  considered,  there  is  usu- 
ally only  one  or  two  which  can  be  recommended 
for  construction. 

KEEPING    RESERVOIRS    CLEAN. 

There  is  still  another  item  which  must  be  recog- 
nized in  some  parts  of  the  country,  and  this  is  the 
cost  of  removing  silt  from  the  reservoir.  The 
floods  bring  down  great  quantities  of  material 
washed  from  the  hills,  rolling  down  boulders, 
gravel,  sand,  and  clay,  all  of  which  may  be  caught 
in  the  reservoir.  The  boulders  and  gravel  do  not 
travel  far  at  a  time,  and  are  usually  soon  deposited  ; 
but  sand  and  especially  fine  clayey  particles  are 
often  carried  out  into  the  reservoir,  tending  to  fill 
it.  Some  of  this  material  will  remain  in  suspen- 
sion and  be  drawn  off,  some  can  be  washed  out 


SILT    IN   RESERVOIRS.  157 

through  or  over  the  dam,  while  the  remainder 
must  be  removed  by  hydraulic  dredges  or  similar 
devices.  The  necessity  for  cleaning  out  a  storage 
reservoir  has  not  yet  been  demonstrated  by  actual 
filling  of  any  in  the  United  States,  but  this  is  a 
contingency  worthy  of  consideration. 

The  difficulties  which  may  arise  from  the  ac- 
cumulation of  sediment  in  a  reservoir  have  been  a 
source  of  needless  alarm  to  persons  who  have  given 
slight  attention  to  the  matter.  The  work  of  remov- 
ing silt  has  been  exaggerated  by  persons  who,  for 
one  reason  or  another,  wish  to  bring  about  delay 
in  the  beginning  of  construction  of  storage  works 
by  the  government.  There  is  no  question  that  in 
some  cases  the  accumulation  of  silt  will  become  a 
source  of  annoyance  and  expense,  but  not  an  insu- 
perable obstacle.  The  condition  is  somewhat  analo- 
gous to  that  in  railroad  construction.  It  might  be 
argued  in  advance  that  a  railroad  could  not  possi- 
bly be  operated  more  than  ten  years,  because  at 
the  end  of  that  time  all  of  the  wooden  ties  upon 
which  the  rails  are  laid  would  be  rotten  and  unsafe, 
and  the  rails  must  be  all  taken  up  and  relaid,  with 
great  expense  and  delay.  Experience,  however, 
has  shown  that,  although  railroad  ties  do  decay, 
they  can  be  replaced  without  disturbing  traffic. 
In  the  same  way  it  can  be  shown  that  the  silt  ac- 
cumulating in  a  reservoir  can  be  removed  from 
time  to  time. 

Most  of  the  reservoirs  in  which  silt  is  liable  to 


158  IRRIGATION. 

accumulate  are  so  situated  that  water  is  drawn 
from  some  point  near  the  bottom,  so  that  much  of 
the  silt,  especially  that  near  the  dam,  will  be  drawn 
out  when  water  is  taken  for  irrigation.  The  finer 
silt  in  the  water  in  a  large  reservoir  is  kept  in  sus- 
pension almost  indefinitely  by  wave  motion  and 
currents,  the  lighter  particles  floating  for  weeks, 
and  even  months.  That  portion  of  the  sediment 
which  has  settled  on  the  bottom  is  very  easily  dis- 
turbed ;  and  when  water  is  being  drawn  out  of  the 
reservoir,  a  stirring  of  the  bottom  by  a  dredge  or 
other  device  will  cause  much  of  the  material  to 
rise  and  be  carried  off. 

As  the  water  in  a  reservoir  is  drawn  down,  ex- 
posing the  mud  banks,  it  is  practicable  to  bring 
the  incoming  stream  at  the  upper  end  around  the 
top  contour  of  the  reservoir  in  suitably  constructed 
ditches,  and  then  turn  the  water  down,  washing 
out  the  mud  banks  either  by  the  stream  flowing 
across  them  or  by  confining  the  water  in  pipes 
and  cutting  out  the  accumulation  of  debris  by 
hydraulic  giants  similar  to  those  used  in  placer 
mining  or  in  hydraulic  construction,  as  shown  on 
Pis.  XXVIII  and  XXIX.  An  enormous  amount 
of  the  light  dirt  can  thus  be  moved  at  very  small 
cost  and  run  out  through  the  lower  gates  of  the 
reservoir. 

Another  way  proposed  for  keeping  reservoirs 
clean  is  by  means  of  floating  dredges,  particularly 
those  which  pump  up  the  mud  by  suction  and 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXV. 


A.    LAGR. 


.ETED. 


B     LAGRANGE   DAM.  WITH    FLOOD   PASSING   OVER   CREST  AND 
SPILLWAYS. 


CLEANING   RESERVOIRS.  159 

deliver  it  into  pipes  conveying  it  to  the  shore. 
Such  dredges  can  be  operated  by  electric  power 
generated  by  a  small  portion  of  the  water  drawn 
from  the  reservoir  for  use  in  irrigation.  By  such 
means,  adapted  to  the  local  conditions,  it  is  prac- 
ticable to  keep  a  reservoir  clean  just  as  other 
public  works  are  kept  in  order.  All  great  struc- 
tures, whether  for  river  and  harbor  improvement 
or  for  other  purposes,  require  a  certain  amount  of 
attention,  and  the  fact  that  continual  and  intelli- 
gent care  is  needed  for  storage  reservoirs  cannot 
be  used  as  an  argument  against  their  success. 

MASONRY    DAMS. 

The  oldest  and  most  substantial  structures  for 
holding  water  are  those  built  of  masonry.  The 
form  of  a  dam  of  this  character  is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figure  (41),  which  is  typical  of  a  con- 
siderable number  of  works  in  the  United  States 
and  in  Europe.  This  is  a  section  of  the  masonry 
dam  in  Tuolumne  River,  a  short  distance  above  La 
Grange,  California.  The  dimensions  are  indicated, 
the  thickness  near  the  botton  being  84  feet  and  the 
height  nearly  120  feet.  The  stones  composing 
the  dam  have  been  carefully  set  in  cement,  and 
those  on  the  outer  face  have  been  cut  to  fit  one  an- 
other. A  general  view  of  this  dam  with  the  water 
pouring  over  it  is  shown  on  PI.  XXV.  A  plan  is 
also  given  in  Fig.  42,  the  direction  of  the  water 
being  indicated  by  the  arrow. 


i6o 


IRRIGATION. 


On  the  right  is  the  head  of  the  Modesto  Canal. 
The  excess  water  entering  the  canal  is  allowed  to 
escape  over  a  long  concrete  spillway  wall.  Beyond 
this  are  waste  gates,  and  then  the  regulator,  which 


Extreme.  &W 


FlG.  41.  —  Section  of  masonry  dam  at  La  Grange,  California. 

permits  the  desired  quantity  to  enter  the  canal. 
On  the  left  is  indicated  the  position  of  the  Turlock 
Canal,  which  comes  out  from  a  tunnel,  the  size  of 
this  regulating  the  amount  which  can  enter  the 
canal. 


MASONRY   DAMS. 


161 


Structures  of  this  kind,  when  well  built,  may  be 
considered  absolutely  safe.  There  are,  however,  a 
number  of  precautions  to  be  taken,  which,  if  neg- 


Fie.  42.  —  Plan  of  dam  at  La  Grange,  California. 

M 


162  IRRIGATION. 

lected,  may  be  fatal,  as  shown  by  a  few  accidents 
which  have  occurred.  The  most  notable  of  these 
in  recent  times  is  the  failure  of  the  Austin  Dam 
in  Texas,  views  of  which  are  shown  on  PL  XXVI. 
The  upper  picture  is  of  the  dam,  looking  across 
Colorado  River  toward  the  power  house  above  the 
city  of  Austin.  The  lower  view  is  from  the  oppo- 
site direction  and  shows  the  fragments  of  the  dam 
immediately  after  its  failure  during  the  flood  of 
April  7,  1900.  At  that  time  water  to  the  depth 
of  1 1  feet  was  pouring  over  the  top.  Apparently 
a  section  of  about  500  feet  in  length  slid  forward. 
This  has  been  attributed  to  various  causes,  but 
the  general  explanation  is,  that  beneath  the  dam 
was  a  layer  of  soft  rock  into  which  water  pen- 
etrated during  the  flood,  tending  to  float  the  dam, 
and  weakened  its  strength  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  slid  forward  upon  the  yielding  surface. 
This  dam  was  located  at  a  point  of  disturbance  of 
the  bedded  limestone,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  what 
is  known  by  geologists  as  a  fault  or  zone  of  frac- 
ture, so  that  leaks  or  so-called  springs  appeared 
below  the  dam  at  one  end,  these  being  doubtless 
due  to  water  finding  its  way  into  the  shattered 
rocks  and  out  at  the  first  point  of  escape. 

ROCK-FILLED    DAMS. 

Besides  the  masonry  dams  carefully  laid  by 
hand,  a  number  of  rock  structures  have  been  built 
in  which  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  lessen 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXVI. 


A.     DAM  AT  AUSTIN,  TEXAS;  LOOKING  TOWARD  POWER  HOUSE. 


B.     PORTIONS   OF  AUSTIN   DAM   IMMEDIATELY  AFTER  FAILURE. 


ROCK-FILLED   DAMS.  163 

the  expense  by  throwing  in  the  stone,  letting 
them  take  such  position  as  they  will,  not  filling  the 
interstices  with  cement.  These  are  known  as  rock- 
filled  dams.  The  upper  face  must  be  made  water- 
tight by  an  impervious  wall  of  masonry,  wood,  or 
metal.  The  pile  of  rock  behind  this  face  serves 
to  hold  it  in  place  and  prevent  it  from  being  washed 
away.  It  is  necessary  to  provide  such  structures 
with  ample  wasteways,  so  that  the  waters  will  not 
overflow  the  top  and  wash  out  the  loose  rock, 
weakening  the  structure.  This  has  happened  in 
the  case  of  the  Walnut  Grove  Dam  in  Arizona, 
where  a  sudden  severe  storm  or  cloudburst  over- 
topped the  structure,  washed  out  the  loose  rock 
which  held  up  the  impervious  face,  and  allowed 
the  entire  volume  in  the  reservoir  to  burst  out, 
overwhelming  the  settlements  below. 

When  a  person  is  standing  on  the  side  of  a  deep 
canyon,  the  thought  occurs :  Why  not  throw  down 
a  part  of  the  walls  of  the  canyon  by  means  of 
enormous  blasts,  and  allow  the  material  to  choke 
up  the  bottom  of  the  gorge,  and  thus  pond  the 
water  back  and  overflow  the  valley  above  ?  This 
experiment  has  been  tried,  and  great  quantities 
of  rock  have  been  thrown  into  a  stream  channel 
by  titanic  explosions  of  dynamite.  The  difficulty 
encountered,  however,  has  been  that  the  water 
quickly  finds  a  way  through  this  mass  of  loose 
material,  and  cannot  be  held  for  a  sufficient  length 
of  time  to  repay  the  cost  of  outlay. 


164  IRRIGATION. 

It  is  necessary  to  provide  some  form  of  impervi- 
ous wall  in  the  loose  rock,  or  a  tight  cover  at  its 
upper  face.  To  construct  this  after  the  material  is 
in  place  is  exceedingly  difficult,  since  the  accumu- 
lated rock  tends  to  hold  back  the  water  and  inter- 
fere with  the  construction  of  the  retaining  wall.. 

In  southern  California  several  dams  have  been 
successfully  constructed  by  a  modification  of  this 
method,  these  being  at  localities  where  the  flowing 
water  has  not  been  sufficient  in  quantity  to  inter- 
fere with  the  work.  Chief  among  these  are  the 
Morena  Lower  Otay  dams,  easterly  from  the 
city  of  San  Diego.  After  the  heavy  explosions, 
the  ground  immediately  above  the  rock  heap  was 
cleaned  away  to  bed  rock  and  a  concrete  base  pre- 
pared for  the  insertion  of  a  steel  plate.  This  plate 
was  continued  upward  across  the  narrow  canyon, 
being  protected  on  each  side  by  a  thin  layer  of  as- 
phaltum  and  a  thickness  of  concrete  against  this. 
On  both  sides  of  the  plate  was  placed  the  loose 
rock  (PL  XXVII,  A\  this  being  lifted  and  deposited 
in  position  by  means  of  derricks  and  overhead 
cables.  The  completed  structure  consists  of  a 
substantial  pile  of  rock,  the  impervious  steel  plate 
preventing  leakage. 

As  indicated  by  the  preceding  statements,  the 
most  desirable  structures  for  holding  water  are  those 
built  of  substantial  masonry.  It  occasionally  hap- 
pens, however,  that  dams  of  this  kind  cannot  be 
built  for  lack  of  suitable  material  conveniently 


STEEL-CORE   AND   TIMBER   DAMS.         165 

located,  and  other  forms  of  structure  must  be 
considered.  For  this  purpose  earth,  timber,  iron, 
and  steel  are  sometimes  employed.  Steel  has 
been  used  through  the  interior  of  a  dam,  as  just 
noted,  and  also  for  the  entire  structure,  strength 
being  given,  not  by  the  weight  of  rock,  but  by  a 
system  of  bracing  similar  to  that  employed  in  ships 
and  great  buildings.  There  is  no  difficulty  as  to 
the  original  strength,  but  doubt  has  arisen  in  the 
minds  of  many  engineers  as  to  the  permanence  of 
the  work,  because  of  the  possible  effects  of  rust 
or  other  forms  of  deterioration. 

Timber  dams  are  widely  used,  especially  for  lum- 
bering operations  and  for  mill  purposes.  These 
have  been  built  in  great  numbers  upon  rivers  flow- 
ing from  forested  regions,  where  timber  is  plentiful. 
They  are  usually  of  relatively  low  height,  and  con- 
sist of  logs  framed  to  form  cribs,  these  being  filled 
with  large  stones  and  thus  held  in  place.  The 
upper  face  of  these  dams  is  covered  with  a  sheath- 
ing of  planks,  making  the  dams  nearly  water-tight. 

Timber  or  log  structures  of  this  kind  are  used  to 
a  small  extent  in  the  arid  region,  but  they  are  tem- 
porary expedients,  resorted  to  with  the  idea  of 
replacing  them  by  better  works  as  soon  as  the 
irrigators  acquire  the  means  with  which  to  make 
a  more  substantial  dam.  As  used  for  this  purpose, 
they  are  for  the  most  part  at  the  outlets  of  small 
natural  lakes,  partly  closing  these  and  raising  the 
water  at  the  time  of  the  spring  floods.  These 


166  IRRIGATION. 

timber  dams  are  designed  to  accomplish  the  de- 
sired end  temporarily  at  the  least  possible  cost. 
A  view  of  one  of  these  -temporary  dams  is  given 
on  PL  XXVII,  />. 

EARTH    DAMS. 

Earth  is  largely  used  for  holding  water  in  locali- 
ties such  as  those  upon  the  edge  of  the  Great  Plains, 
where  there  are  broad  basins  or  shallow  depressions 
into  which  water  can  be  taken  from  local  floods. 
It  is  usually  necessary  to  provide  a  very  long  and 
relatively  low  bank  to  increase  the  storage  capacity 
of  these  basins,  as  in  this  situation  there  is  rarely 
any  rock  or  timber.  Earth  must,  therefore,  be 
used,  carefully  compacted  and  piled  up  in  such 
quantities  that  the  water  cannot  seep  through. 

Percolation  through  an  earth  bank  is  prevented 
by  carefully  preparing  the  foundations,  to  secure  a 
perfect  union  between  the  underlying  earth  and 
the  material  placed  upon  it.  All  loose  soil  and 
vegetal  matter  must  be  removed  from  the  foun- 
dation of  the  earth  bank,  and  along  the  centre  a 
deep  trench  dug.  This  trench  is  then  filled  with 
clay,  carefully  worked  into  place.  This  is  designed 
to  cut  off  the  water  which  otherwise  might  seep 
beneath  the  foundations.  The  clay  or  puddled  wall 
is  continued  upward  through  the  centre  of  the  dam, 
forming  an  impervious  sheet,  which  prevents  any 
leaks  from  extending  through  to  the  lower  side. 
The  preparation  of  this  puddled  wall  requires  great- 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXVII. 


A.     LOWER  OTAY  DAM,  CALIFORNIA,  SHOWING  METHOD  OF  PRO- 
TECTING  STEEL   PLATES. 


B.    CONSTRUCTION  OF  TIMBER  DAM  AT  BLUE  LAKES,  CALIFORNIA. 


EARTH   DAMS.  167 

est  care  and  attention,  as  upon  it  depends  largely 
the  safety  of  the  structure.  A  leak  once  started 
through  an  earth  dam  may  enlarge  rapidly,  the 
flowing  water  eating  away  the  loose  material  with 
increasing  rapidity. 

Ample  provision  must  be  made  to  prevent  the 
possibility  of  the  water  overtopping  the  bank  at 
any  point,  as  this  is  easily  eroded  and  would  be 
washed  away  in  a  few  hours.  To  do  this,  a  broad 
wasteway  is  usually  cut  across  a  portion  of  the 
natural  rim  of  the  basin,  this  being  several  feet 
lower  than  the  top  of  the  artificial  bank.  By  pro- 
viding a  broad  place  of  escape  across  hard,  undis- 
turbed material,  a  sudden  flood  can  be  released 
before  it  overtops  the  embankment. 

Outlets  for  such  reservoirs  are  sometimes  pro- 
vided at  the  lowest  point  in  the  dam,  especial  care 
being  taken  to  make  this  point  of  weakness  as 
strong  as  possible.  It  has  been  found  preferable 
in  some  instances  to  tunnel  through  some  other 
part  of  the  basin  rather  than  to  run  the  risk  of 
leakage  around  or  along  an  outlet  built  in  the  arti- 
ficial bank  itself. 

Earth  reservoirs  of  large  capacity  have  been 
built  in  this  way,  and  also  innumerable  small  ponds 
or  tanks  for  stock  water  or  for  irrigating  gardens 
and  orchards.  These  tanks  are  made  from  100  to 
500  feet  in  width,  and  are  frequently  filled  with 
water  by  means  of  one  or  more  windmills,  as 
described  on  page  268.  They  are  frequently  made 


1 68  IRRIGATION. 

on  the  surface  of  the  ground  by  scraping  the  earth 
from  the  outside,  depositing  this  carefully  in  lay- 
ers, and  wetting  and  rolling,  or  trampling,  it  firmly 
into  place.  The  banks  thus  built  have  a  slope  on 


FIG.  43.  —  Portion  of  earth  reservoir  showing  outlet. 

each  side  of  at  least  I  \  or  2  feet  horizontal  to  I  ver- 
tical. The  layers  of  dirt  are  so  placed  as  to  be  lower 
in  the  centre  of  the  wall,  the  finer  material  being, 
if  possible,  kept  here  as  each  layer  is  put  into  place 
or  still  better,  a  puddled  wall  of  clay  is  put  through 
the  centre  of  the  dirt  bank. 

These  tanks  may  be  either  circular  or  rectan- 
gular in  outline.  An  outlet  is  usually  provided  at 
the  lowest  point  by  inserting  a  substantial  masonry 
or  tile  drain  with  gate,  or  a  stout  wooden  box,  care 
being  taken  to  compact  the  earth  around  the  out- 
let. 

Frequently  when  a  small  reservoir  of  this  kind 
has  been  completed,  it  leaks  so  rapidly  that  the 
water  disappears  before  it  can  be  used.  It  is  then 
necessary  to  puddle  the  bottom  with  fine  earth  or 
clay,  sometimes  straw  and  stable  manure  being 
used.  Cattle,  horses,  sheep,  or  goats  are  turned 
into  the  reservoir,  and  are  fed  there  or  kept  moving 


SiMALL   EARTH    RESERVOIRS. 


169 


around,  trampling  the  muddy  bottom  until  it  has 
been  completely  worked  over.  In  this  way  it  is 
soon  rendered  water-tight,  especially  if  fine  silt  or 
muddy  water  is  kept  in  the  reservoir  for  some  time. 


^?S^ 
FIG.  44.  —  Portion  of  earth  reservoir  showing  inlet. 

The  illustrations,  Figs.  45,  49,  and  50,  show 
easily  constructed  devices  for  an  outlet  and  gate 
for  one  of  these  small  reservoirs.  It  is  usual  to 
construct  this  outlet  of  boards  or  plank,  in  the  form 
of  a  long  box  from  8  to  18  inches  in  width  and 
height.  For  permanence  it  is  preferable  to  use  a 


FIG.  45.  —  Section  of  reservoir  bank  showing  outlet. 

pipe  of  metal  or  cement,  but  the  cheaper  wooden 
outlet  will  suffice  for  a  number  of  years.  Around 
this  outlet  the  clay  and  fine  earth  is  very  carefully 
packed  to  prevent  leaks.  On  the  upper  end  of 
the  outlet  is  placed  some  form  of  gate  or  a  simple 


I/O  IRRIGATION. 

hinged  cover,  as  shown  in  Fig.  45,  with  a 
handle  reaching  above  the  water  to  a  point  con- 
venient of  access. 

The  top  of  these  reservoir  banks  is  usually  made 
at  least  2  feet  in  width.  If,  therefore,  the  bank  is 
to  be  5  feet  high,  the  slopes  on  each  side  should 
extend  out  at  least  /|  feet,  making  the  width  of  the 
bank  at  the  bottom  17  feet.  Earth  for  building 
the  wall  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  taken  from  inside 
the  reservoir,  as  this  disturbs  the  natural  surface 
and  tends  to  increase  the  leaks. 

The  banks  of  reservoirs  made  of  earth  must  be 
protected  from  washing  by  the  waves,  by  being 
covered  either  with  sod  in  the  case  of  small  tanks 
or  ponds  on  a  farm,  as  shown  in  PI.  XLIII,  or 
with  a  heavy,  well-laid  revetment  of  stone  for 
larger  works.  An  efficient  form  of  protection  is 
made  by  roughly  weaving  willow  twigs  into  a  mat 
held  in  place  by  stone  or  earth.  In  course  of  time 
the  willows  take  root  and  hold  the  bank  from 
erosion. 

HYDRAULIC    DAMS. 

An  ingenious  method  of  constructing  earth  dams 
for  reservoirs  has  been  practised  in  the  West,  the 
method  being  suggested  by  the  operations  of  the 
miners  for  placer  gold.  Small  particles  of  this 
precious  metal  have  been  found  scattered  through 
gravels  which  formerly  were  a  portion  of  ancient 
stream  channels.  To  obtain  these  small  flakes  or 
larger  nuggets  the  gravel  is  washed,  the  heavy 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXVIII. 


A.     BUILDING  DAM  BY  HYDRAULIC  PROCESS  AT  SANTA  FE,  NEW 
MEXICO,   SHOWING  HYDRAULIC  GIANT  IN   USE. 


.DING  DAM  BY  HYDRAULIC  PROCESS  AT  SANTA  FE.  NEW 
MEXICO,   SHOWING  OUTLET   PIPE. 


HYDRAULIC   DAMS.  I/I 

particles  settling,  and  the  gold  being  caught  in 
blankets  or  seized  upon  by  mercury  suitably  held 
in  tiny  pockets  beneath  the  moving  stream  of  water 
carrying  the  sand  and  gravel.  To  bring  the  gravel 
to  the  point  where  the  gold  can  be  obtained  it  has 
been  customary  to  arrange  devices  by  which  a 
column  of  water  under  heavy  pressure  can  be 
directed  against  the  bank  or  deposit  where  the 
gold  is  supposed  to  exist.  By  means  of  ditches, 
flumes,  or  other  conduits,  water  is  brought  from 
some  mountain  stream  and  led  out  to  a  point  where 
it  can  be  conducted  by  a  pipe  downhill,  finally  ter- 
minating in  a  nozzle,  forming  part  of  what  is  known 
as  a  "  giant."  The  stream  directed  by  the  giant 
strikes  with  tremendous  force,  as  shown  on  Pis. 
XXVIII,  A,  and  XXIX,  cutting  its  way  into  hills 
of  sand,  clay,  and  small  boulders,  tearing  these  out 
and  throwing  them  aside,  the  waste  water  washing 
them  away  and  assorting  the  material  according  to 
its  size  and  weight. 

In  placer  mining  the  debris  thus  resulting  was 
formerly  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  stream  chan- 
nels, and,  being  washed  down  by  floods,  was  piled 
up  in  the  lower  valleys,  filling  the  beds  of  the 
streams,  interfering  with  navigation,  and  causing 
the  rivers  to  overflow  their  banks,  carrying  mud, 
sand,  and  often  stones  far  out  over  fertile  land 
and  ruining  thousands  of  farms.  Because  of  the 
destruction  thus  wrought,  this  form  of  mining 
has  been  prohibited  by  law,  except  in  localities 


1/2  IRRIGATION. 

where  the  debris  can  be  impounded  and  kept  away 
from  the  rivers. 

The  amount  of  material  transported  in  this  way 
is  very  great,  and  it  occurred  to  engineers  that 
this  method  might  be  put  to  other  purposes.  Ac- 
cordingly, instead  of  turning  the  debris  loose  to 
follow  the  stream  channels,  it  has  been  carefully 
conducted  to  the  designated  spot,  and  the  accumu- 
lation there  so  arranged  that  a  symmetrical  pile 
will  be  formed  of  any  desired  shape.  For  example, 
if  an  earth  dam  is  to  be  built,  the  material  rolled 
along  by  the  water  is  carried  in  suitable  flumes  to 
the  selected  spot.  On  leaving  the  flume  the  small 
boulders  and  coarse  gravel  are  at  once  deposited ; 
the  sand  flows  on  farther,  and  the  fine  mud  is 
carried  in  suspension  for  considerable  distances. 
It  is  thus  possible  to  deposit  the  coarse  gravel  on 
the  outer  slope  of  the  dam,  and,  by  raising  the 
sides,  cause  the  finer  material  to  be  laid  down  in 
the  centre  of  the  dam,  thus  making  a  uniform 
gradation  in  coarseness  from  a  central  impervious 
wall  of  clay  out  to  the  heavy  coating  of  gravel  on 
the  upper  and  lower  side  of  the  dam.  The  sym- 
metrical form  can  be  easily  preserved  by  shifting 
the  point  of  outlet,  and  thus  a  structure  is  made 
of  the  exact  shape  called  for  by  the  plans.  The 
material,  being  deposited  under  water,  is  thoroughly 
compacted,  and  there  is  less  danger  of  settlement 
or  of  porous  layers  being  formed  than  in  the  case 
of  dirt  placed  by  carts  or  scrapers. 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXIX. 


EXCAVATING  DEEP  CUT   FOR  CANAL   BY   HYDRAULIC   PROCESS- 


HYDRAULIC   DAMS.  173 

The  speed  and  small  cost  at  which  material  can 
thus  be  moved  are  extraordinary,  the  actual  expense 
being  stated  to  be  from  four  to  eight  cents  or  more 
per  cubic  yard,  according  to  conditions  or  the  ease 
of  obtaining  the  necessary  proportion  of  clay,  sand, 
and  gravel.  A  number  of  dams  have  been  con- 
structed in  this  way,  the  most  notable  being  in 
California  and  in  Texas.  In  a  few  instances,  par- 
ticularly on  the  Canadian  Pacific  and  Northern 
Pacific  railway,  large  cuts  have  been  made  through 
hills  of  gravel  and  clay,  the  material  being  washed 
out  and  deposited  to  form  embankments. 

Plate  XXVIII,  A,  illustrates  the  process  of 
breaking  up  the  soil  above  and  near  a  dam  which 
was  begun  near  Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico.  The 
stream  from  the  hydraulic  giant,  after  tearing  out 
the  gravel,  sand,  and  clay,  washes  these  into  pipes, 
the  lower  of  which  is  shown  on  the  same  plate  at  B. 
Here  the  material  is  deposited  to  form  the  dam. 
On  the  next  illustration  (PL  XXIX)  are  shown 
two  streams  making  a  cut  through  a  ridge,  this 
being  on  the  line  of  the  Turlock  Canal  in  Cali- 
fornia. The  cost  of  the  excavation  was  3 1  cents 
per  cubic  yard,  and  this  was  reduced  by  the  value 
of  the  gold  found,  amounting  to  4  cents  per  yard. 

STORED    WATERS. 

The  control  of  water  which  has  been  held  in 
reservoirs  is,  by  custom  and  law,  governed  by  regu- 
lations different  from  those  governing  water  taken 


1/4  IRRIGATION. 

directly  from  a  flowing  stream.  It  is  considered 
that  the  water  thus  held  for  a  specific  tract  belongs 
to  the  person  or  association  owning  the  reservoir, 
and  is  subject  to  the  control  of  the  owners.  It  is 
not,  strictly  speaking,  property,  but  the  persons 
owning  the  reservoir  become  owners  of  the  water 
only  when  it  is  segregated  from  the  waters  belong- 
ing to  the  public  and  held  for  use  on  land,  to  which 
the  right  to  the  use  of  the  water  attaches.  Its  com- 
plete utilization  is,  moreover,  to  a  large  extent 
dependent  upon  the  situation  of  the  reservoir  with 
respect  to  the  lands  to  be  irrigated. 

Most  reservoirs  can  be  considered  as  belonging 
to  one  or  the  other  of  two  classes :  those  situated 
near  the  head  of  the  stream,  and  those  lower  down 
upon  the  plains.  The  head-water  reservoirs  receive 
their  supply  directly  from  melting  snow  or  rain, 
being  for  the  most  part  located  upon  the  upper 
tributaries.  Water  from  them  must  be  taken  back 
into  the  natural  channel,  and,  mingling  with  the 
stream,  flow  downward  for  many  miles,  passing 
the  heads  of  various  ditches,  until  it  reaches  the 
canal  for  which  it  is  destined. 

The  other  class  of  reservoirs  are  those  among 
the  foothills  or  out  on  the  plains  where  depres- 
sions have  been  found  suitable  for  holding  water 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  irrigable  farms.  The  supply 
is  taken  to  these  by  means  of  large  feeder  canals 
heading  on  the  river  and  receiving  the  flood  flow 
or  the  surplus  at  times  when  not  needed  for  direct 


STORED   WATERS.  1/5 

irrigation.  From  these  low-lying  reservoirs  water 
is  conducted  to  the  fields  without  mingling  with 
other  water  in  a  natural  channel. 

It  is  apparent  that  the  control  of  these  two 
classes  of  works  offers  a  wide  difference  in  theory 
and  in  practice.  In  the  case  of  the  high-level  res- 
ervoirs, the  problem  after  the  water  is  stored  is  to 
get  it  safely  to  the  land.  With  the  low-level  res- 
ervoirs, on  the  contrary,  the  chief  difficulty  is  to 
bring  water  into  the  reservoir.  After  it  is  there, 
it  may  be  considered  as  removed  from  interference. 

As  a  rule,  reservoirs  are  not  built  until  after  the 
natural  flow  of  a  stream  has  been  entirely  appro- 
priated arid  more  land  brought  under  irrigation 
than  can  be  supplied.  Then  comes  a  time  when 
water  must  be  had  and  steps  are  taken  to  supply 
the  deficiency.  If  suitable  sites  are  found  on  the 
head  waters,  dams  are  built  and  water  is  held  for 
the  benefit  of  the  lands  under  a  particular  ditch,  or 
belonging  to  an  association  of  farmers.  When  the 
dry  season  of  the  year  occurs,  a  quantity  of  water 
is  allowed  to  flow  from  the  reservoir  into  the  nat- 
ural channel.  If  this  channel  were  a  closed  pipe 
with  all  outlets  guarded,  the  same  amount  of  water 
could  be  taken  out  below  that  is  turned  in  above ; 
but,  owing  to  evaporation  and  other  causes,  there 
may  be  considerable  losses  along  the  stream,  and 
allowance  must  be  made  for  these. 

A  further  complication  is  that  at  this  time  of 
year  most  of  the  ditches  along  the  stream  are 


1/6  IRRIGATION. 

short  of  water.  Some  of  them  claim  the  entire  flow 
of  the  stream  at  the  point  of  diversion,  and  leave 
their  head  gates  open  to  catch  occasional  floods. 
There  is  no  way  to  distinguish  the  water  which  comes 
from  the  reservoir  from  that  of  a  local  rainstorm, 
and  by  accident,  if  not  by  design,  much  of  this  may 
be  taken  at  one  point  or  another.  Even  if  a  ditch 
has  claim  only  to  a  certain  volume  of  flow  or  a 
certain  portion  of  the  stream,  there  is  always  oppor- 
tunity for  dispute  as  to  the  quantitative  relation 
which  the  stored  water  bears  to  the  natural  flow. 
A  condition  frequently  arises  under  which  the 
ditches  heading  highest  on  the  river  %obtain  by 
chance  more  than  their  share  of  the  natural  flow 
during  the  time  when  the  water  is  coming  from 
the  reservoir.  The  owners  below  endeavor  to 
take  out  the  amount  to  which  they  are  entitled,  and 
controversy  at  once  arises  whether  the  water  at  any 
given  point  is  stored  water  or  the  natural  flow. 
Unless  every  head  gate  is  watched,  there  is  a 
tendency  for  the  water  from  the  reservoir  to  dis- 
appear at  one  point  or  another.  If  belonging  to 
a  ditch  low  on  the  river,  very  little  of  it  comes 
down.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  owners  succeed 
in  obtaining  as  high  as  80  or  90  per  cent  of  the 
quantity  turned  out  of  the  reservoir,  their  success 
is  usually  due  to  the  most  strenuous  exertions,  and 
is  accompanied  by  the  belief  on  the  part  of  other 
ditch  owners  that  they  have  somehow  been  robbed 
of  what  is  due  them. 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXX. 


SKYLINE  CANAL,  DIVERTING  WATER  ACROSS  THE  MOUNTAINS. 


DISTRIBUTION   OF   STORED   WATERS.      177 

Because  of  the  controversies  involved,  and  the 
practical  difficulties  of  distributing  waters  stored  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  catchment  basin  of  a  river 
system,  it  is  believed  by  many  that  such  storage 
should  be  permitted  only  for  the  benefit  of  all  irri- 
gators,  and  not  for  any  particular  owner  or  group 
of  farmers.  Natural  reservoir  sites  should  be 
dedicated  to  public  use  and  the  water  held  in  them 
employed  in  maintaining  the  flow  of  the  stream 
during  the  low  season,  being  taken  out  in  accord- 
ance with  local  customs  or  equities.  Only  in  this 
way  can  the  largest  benefits  result  from  works  of 
this  character. 

The  supply  for  low-lying  reservoirs  is  taken 
from  the  natural  streams  by  canals,  which  in  one 
sense  compete  with  others  along  the  river.  These 
canals  may  be  employed  during  the  irrigating 
season  to  take  water  directly  to  the  fields,  and 
when  other  ditches  are  closed  they  receive  the 
waste  water  and  take  it  to  the  reservoirs,  where  it 
is  held  over  until  times  of  need.  In  early  spring, 
also,  they  often  carry  water  both  to  the  reservoir 
and  to  the  fields  when  there  is  ample  for  both  pur- 
poses. Priorities  to  use  of  water  for  irrigation 
and  for  storage  are  the  cause  of  frequent  disputes, 
due  to  the  gradually  increasing  demand  for  water 
for  direct  irrigation,  and  the  resulting  encroach- 
ments upon  the  quantities  which  previously  have 
been  available  for  storage. 

The  available  water  supply  along  a  stream  may, 


1/8  IRRIGATION. 

in  some  localities,  be  increased  not  only  by  stor- 
age, but  also  by  bringing,  around  or  through  a 
divide,  the  head-water  streams  which  flow  in  other 
directions.  For  example,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  in  Colorado,  all  of  the  water  is 
needed  for  irrigation.  On  the  west  side  the 
streams  are  more  than  sufficient  to  supply  the 
land  in  the  narrow  valleys.  In  a  number  of  cases 
ditches  have  been  taken  from  some  stream  flowing 
westerly,  and  these  have  been  carried  around  or 
by  tunnels  through  rocky  spurs,  dropping  water 
finally  on  the  east  side  of  the  range  and  thus 
increasing  the  flow.  Occasionally  this  has  been 
done  to  the  detriment  of  irrigators  lower  down  the 
stream  thus  diverted,  but,  as  a  rule,  works  of  this 
character  have  been  highly  beneficial.  One  of 
these  ditches  winding  around  the  mountain  sum- 
mits is  shown  on  the  accompanying  plate  (XXX). 
This  is  known  as  the  Sky  Line  ditch,  built  at  an 
altitude  of  10,000  feet,  which  takes  water  from  one 
of  the  upper  tributaries  of  the  Laramie  River  and 
diverts  it  to  Cache  la  Poudre  Valley,  Colorado. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

METHODS   OF   IRRIGATION. 

THE  devices  and  structures  described  on  pre- 
ceding pages  are  for  the  purpose  of  bringing 
water  to  the  highest  point  of  the  field  of  the 
farmer,  so  that  he  will  be  able  to  conduct  this  by 
easy  channels  to  the  plants  requiring  moisture.  The 
methods  of  doing  this  are  diverse,  depending  upon 
the  climate,  soil,  and  crop,  and  especially  upon 
the  skill  and  experience  of  the  irrigator.  In  this 
respect  there  has  been  little  scientific  information 
available.  While  methods  of  conserving  and  con- 
ducting water  have  been  improved  under  the  stimu- 
lus of  modern  invention,  the  application  of  water 
to  the  soil  has  been  left  to  experience  gained 
largely  by  accident  and  through  failure.  There  is 
great  need  of  long-continued  systematic  study  and 
acquisition  of  knowledge  concerning  the  actual 
effect  which  the  water  has  upon  the  soil  and  upon 
the  plants.  We  can  see  the  ultimate  result,  but 
have  only  a  vague  conception  of  the  steps  by 
which  this  result  is  produced. 

Most  of  the  farmers  practising  irrigation  in  the 
United  States  use  quantities  of  water  far  in  excess 

179 


180  IRRIGATION. 

of  those  theoretically  demanded  or  actually  benefi- 
cial to  the  crops.  This  is  in  line  with  the  general 
prodigality  of  pioneer  life,  and  with  the  habits  of 
shiftlessness  so  easily  acquired  where  an  abundant 
supply  of  water  can  be  had.  It  is  so  much  easier 
to  open  the  ditches  and  let  the  water  flow  freely 
than  it  is  to  guard  and  guide  each  tiny  rill,  that 
for  economy  of  time  and  labor,  if  not  from  actual 
indolence,  the  irrigator  is  apt  to  let  the  water  go 
its  own  way. 

It  is  sometimes  stated  that  irrigation  is  a  lazy 
man's  way  of  cultivation.  The  reverse  is  the  case 
wherever  the  best  results  are  obtained.  Irrigation, 
properly  conducted,  means  intensive  farming  and 
application  of  water  with  great  care,  followed  by 
thorough  cultivation  of  the  moistened  soil. 

Different  plants  require  different  amounts  of 
water.  Some  are  satisfied  with  a  very  little. 
Others  require  a  great  deal,  and  cannot  do  without 
it.  Still  others  are  relatively  indifferent  as  to 
whether  much  or  little  water  is  applied  ;  they  have 
the  habit  of  adjusting  themselves  to  circumstances. 
Each  crop  therefore  has  different  needs,  and  the 
practice  of  irrigation  must  vary  accordingly. 

It  is  not  merely  the  character  of  the  plant  which 
has  to  be  considered,  but  also  the  quality  of  the 
soil.  Certain  soils  receive  and  transmit  water  with 
great  rapidity,  —  such,  for  example,  as  sand  and 
gravel.  Others,  like  clay,  take  water  slowly  and  hold 
it  with  great  tenacity.  Thus  the  manner  and  time 


NEED   OF   MOISTURE.  181 

of  irrigating  certain  plants  will  vary  according  to 
the  ability  of  the  soil  to  hold  and  supply  water  as 
needed.  If  the  moisture  escapes  rapidly,  as  from 
sand,  the  plant  after  a  few  days  is  not  able  to  re- 
ceive enough  and  begins  to  droop.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  soil  is  very  compact  and  the  water  is 
held  from  escaping,  the  soil  may  become  water- 
logged, air  cannot  penetrate  the  interstices,  and 
the  plant  suffers  from  drowning. 

There  is  still  another  factor  in  the  production 
of  crops  which  must  be  considered  besides  sun- 
shine, soil,  and  water.  This  is  the  low  order 
of  vegetal  life  known  as  nitrifying  organisms. 
These,  in  the  presence  of  air  and  moisture,  manu- 
facture food  for  the  plant  and  are  its  servants  in 
preparing  material  upon  which  it  thrives.  A  cer- 
tain amount  of  water  is  needed  for  these  nitrifying 
organisms,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  too  much  water 
stagnates  and  destroys  them.  Thus  it  is  that 
there  is  a  very  delicate  adjustment  to  be  preserved 
in  respect  to  the  amount  of  moisture  in  order  to 
produce  the  best  results.  These  conditions  the 
successful  irrigator  learns  by  experiment  and  fail- 
ure, and  unconsciously  follows  certain  rules  which 
he  is  usually  unable  to  put  into  words. 

There  has  been  very  little  progress  in  the  prac- 
tice of  irrigation  from  the  methods  of  ancient 
times.  This  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  the 
men  who  are  now  bringing  new  lands  under  ditch 
have  for  the  most  part  received  their  training  as 


182  IRRIGATION. 

farmers  in  humid  regions,  and  find  it  difficult  to  un- 
learn many  of  the  facts  which  they  regard  as  fun- 
damental, and  to  reverse  the  habits  of  half  a 
lifetime.  They  hesitate  to  adopt  the  methods  of 
the  Indians  and  Mexicans,  despising  these  as 
crude  or  childish.  Nevertheless,  these  primitive 
peoples  have,  through  the  experience  of  genera- 
tions, acquired  certain  ways  which  are  worthy  of 
study,  particularly  in  the  direction  of  using  the 
smallest  possible  amount  of  water  in  oases  on 
the  desert.  When  they  have  plenty  of  water,  the 
Mexicans  use  it  wastef  ully ;  but  where  the  amount 
is  extremely  limited,  some  of  them,  particularly 
the  agricultural  Indians  of  the  Southwest,  have 
acquired  the  art  of  utilizing  every  drop.  Even  the 
drippings  from  the  family  water  jar  are  arranged 
to  fall  upon  a  growing  plant,  .and  the  moist  spots 
are  carefully  guarded  for  the  growing  of  corn  or 
beans. 

The  water  having  been  brought  to  the  field,  the 
farmer  must  first,  in  order  to  apply  it  successfully, 
build  small  laterals  or  distributing  ditches  to  direct 
it  toward  the  portions  of  his  land  where  the  plants 
are  being  cultivated.  For  this  purpose  he  ploughs 
out  a  ditch  or  turns  up  two  small  parallel  banks 
of  dirt,  keeping  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  as  near 
the  level  of  the  ground  as  possible,  in  order  that 
water  may  flow  out  when  the  banks  are  cut.  A 
section  of  a  small  field  ditch  is  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying figure  (46),  the  sides  being  formed  by 


DISTRIBUTING   DITCHES.  183 

earth  taken  largely  from  outside  the  ditch  in  order 
not  to  lower  its  bottom. 


FIG.  46.  —  Section  of  small  distributing  ditch. 

It  is  frequently  necessary  to  carry  one  of  these 
small  laterals  directly  across  a  low  portion  of  the 
field,  and  for  this  purpose  earth  is  banked  up  and 
the  two  sides  are  raised  slightly,  making  an  ele- 
vated ditch,  as  shown  in  Fig.  47.  These  are 
usually  constructed  with  plough  and  scraper,  the 
earth  being  carefully  packed  by  trampling,  in  order 
to  prevent  settling  when  the  water  is  turned  in. 


FlG.  47.  —  Section  of  small  raised  ditch. 

Occasionally  the  depression  to  be  crossed  is 
quite  deep,  or  is  a  ravine  receiving  storm  waters, 
which  by  the  construction  of  the  raised  ditch 
would  be  dammed  back,  and,  accumulating,  might 
wash  away  the  obstruction.  To  reduce  the  cost, 
or  to  permit  the  passage  of  storm  waters,  small 
flumes  are  built  similar  to  those  used  on  the  main 


1 84 


IRRIGATION. 


ditches  and  canals.     The  accompanying  figure  (48) 
gives  sections  and  elevation  of  some  of  the  flumes 


FIG.  48.  —  Sections  and  elevation  of  small  flumes. 

used  on  farm  laterals.  The  section  on  the  left 
shows  a  V-shaped  flume,  built  for  economy  of  lum- 
ber; the  rectangular  form  is,  however,  more  gen- 
erally employed. 

Water  is  taken  from  the  main  ditch  into  these 
farm  laterals,  and  from  one  lateral  into  another,  by 


FIG.  49.  —  Box  for  taking  water  from  main  ditch. 

means  of  small  gates  or  boxes.  The  crude 
method  is  sometimes  employed  of  simply  cutting 
the  bank  of  a  ditch  by  means  of  a  shovel,  and 


DISTRIBUTING   BOXES.  185 

when  sufficient  water  has  been  taken  the  hole  is 
filled  again.  Unless  this  is  carefully  done,  how- 
ever, there  is  liability  of  leaks,  and  the  water  may 
wash  out  a  large  hole  before  it  can  be  checked. 
A  simple  form  of  gate  or  box  is  shown  in  Fig. 
49.  This  is  built  of  boards  or  plank,  and  has  a 
small  sliding  gate  or  shutter  at  the  upper  end. 
These  boxes  should  be  bedded  in  clay  carefully 
packed  to  prevent  leakage. 

The  details  of  the  construction  of  a  gate  for  one 
of  these  lateral  ditches  or  for  a  small  earth  reser- 
voir are  shown  in  Fig.  50,  which  gives  the  di- 
mensions of  the  material  used.  The  sliding  faces, 
where  the  gate  is  brought  in  contact  with  its  bear- 
ings, must  be  made  smooth  in  order  to  be  as 
nearly  water-tight  as  possible.  Frequently  leather 
or  rubber  facing  is  used,  in  order  to  insure  a  more 
perfect  fit.  In  these  illustrations  only  the  more 
simple  devices  are  shown,  those  which  are  usually 
constructed  by  the  irrigator.  More  complicated 
or  machine-made  gates  and  boxes  may  be  pur- 
chased from  manufacturers,  but  these  are  only 
employed  after  irrigation  has  developed  beyond 
its  early  stages.  It  is  the  home-made,  somewhat 
crude,  devices  which  are  used  in  conquering  the 
desert. 

FLOODING    IN    CHECKS. 

The  simplest  way  to  apply  water  to  the  soil  is 
that  imitated  from  the  operations  of  nature  when 


1 86 


IRRIGATION. 


a  river  overflows  its  banks.  Water  is  spread  over 
the  surface,  and  after  this  has  drained  away,  plant 
life  starts  into  luxuriant  growth.  In  a  similar 


FIG.  50.  —  Details  of  construction  of  box  for  distributing  water. 

manner,  the  irrigator  may  turn  the  water  from  a 
ditch  over  a  level  field  and  completely  submerge 
it.  Perfectly  level  fields  are,  however,  compara- 
tively rare,  and  the  next  step  is  to  build  a  low 


FLOODING   IN   CHECKS. 


I87 


ridge  around  two  or  three  sides  of  a  slightly  slop- 
ing field,  so  that  water,  when  turned  into  it,  is 
ponded.  These  low  banks  are  commonly  known 
as  levees  or  checks.  In  construction  they  are 
generally  laid  out  at  right  angles,  dividing  the 
land  into  a  number  of  compartments,  as  shown 
on  PI.  XXXI,  A,  each  usually  lying  at  an  elevation 
which  differs  slightly  from  that  of  the  others. 
Water  is  turned  from  the  ditch  into  the  highest 

-^?fc=SS 

,,^^£±2=:^^^ 

^^^^saa^S 


^ 

FlG.  51.  —  Portion  of  field  divided  by  rectangular  levees. 

of  these  compartments,  and  when  the  ground  is 
flooded  the  bank  of  the  lower  side  is  cut  and  the 
water  passes  into  the  next  field,  and  so  on  until 
each  in  turn  is  watered. 

This  flooding  in  rectangular  checks  is  practised 
most  largely  by  the  Mexicans  living  along  the  Rio 
Grande  in  New  Mexico  and  in  adjacent  portions 
of  the  Southwest.  These  farmers  follow  the  exam- 
ple of  their  ancestors  and  subdivide  the  land  into 
little  rectangles,  often  not  more  than  a  rod  or  two 


188 


IRRIGATION. 


PLAN 


mwm 


|*Ml»iWiluli!iillili|»iiil^  1 

~~~~  "Si-iriiHiiii!iiii:i!i|,.1|'!iii':!niiLi.  .  "-F*?  1 


long  on  each  side.  The  banks  are  thrown  up  with 
spade  or  shovel,  and  the  ground  between  the  banks 
is  tilled  with  a  heavy  spade  or  mattock.  The 

grain  when  ripe  is 
reaped  by  hand, 
and,  in  short,  in 
all  of  their  opera- 
tions the  greatest 
imaginable  labor 
is  expended.  Wa- 
ter, when  had  in 
abundance,  is 
turned  into  these 
checks,  and  the 
quantities  used 
are  often  ex- 
tremely large. 

The  accom- 
panying figure 
(52)  gives  a  plan 
of  two  rectangu- 
lar fields  con- 
nected by  a  gate 
set  in  the  levee, 
so  that  water  can 

FIG.  5a.  -Application  of  water  b        t  j      from 

by  the  block  system. 

one  field  into  the 

other  without  cutting  the  banks.  This  represents 
a  field  in  southern  Arizona,  the  sides  being  from 
20  to  60  feet  in  length,  and  the  ridges  10  inches 


Cross    Sect/on  on      a  - 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXXI. 


A.     FIELD   PREPARED   IN   RECTANGULAR  CHECKS. 


B.    IRRIGATION  BY  CHECKS  IN  SAN  JOAQUIN  VALLEY,  CALIFORNIA. 


RECTANGULAR   CHECKS.  189 

in  height.  Alfalfa  and  other  forage  crops  are 
grown  in  such  fields. 

Many  of  the  early  settlers  in  the  Southwest  imi- 
tated the  Mexicans,  or  employed  them  as  laborers, 
building  checks  upon  the  same  general  plan,  but 
usually  enclosing  more  ground.  Fields  of  from 
one  acre  to  twenty  acres  or  more  in  area  have  been 
levelled  and  surrounded  by  low  levees,  from  i  to 
2  feet  in  height  and  5  to  10  feet  in  width.  These 
are  made  relatively  wide  at  the  bottom,  in  order 
that  the  slopes  may  be  gentle,  so  that  mowing 
machines  can  be  driven  over  them. 

Figure  53  illustrates  a  modification  of  this 
method  used  in  New  Mexico.  Water  is  let  into 
the  first  check-bed  from  the  lateral  ditch  by  means 
of  a  box  or  gate,  or  by  making  an  opening  in  the 
bank  with  a  large  hoe.  When  the  first  bed  is 
covered,  the  lower  side  of  the  border  is  opened, 
and  so  on  until  each  has  been  flooded.  In  prac- 
tice a  number  of  these  beds  are  irrigated  simul- 
taneously, water  being  let  into  the  rectangles 
numbered  I,  5,  9,  and  13  simultaneously,  and  then 
into  the  beds  below  them. 

Another  method  of  procedure  with  these  beds 
is  to  let  the  water  flow  through  the  upper  until  the 
lowest  is  covered  to  a  depth  of  about  3  inches, 
then  obstruct  the  opening  to  this  bed  and  permit 
the  water  to  accumulate  in  the  next  square  above, 
and  so  on,  filling  each  in  succession  from  the  low- 
est to  the  highest  and  allowing  the  water  to  soak 


190 


IRRIGATION. 


away.     It  is  claimed  that  by  following  this  course 
the  land  receives  water  more  uniformly. 

For   crops    such    as   tomatoes,    sweet    potatoes, 
and  chili  —  one  of  the  most  important  foods   of 


Lateral 


FIG.  53.  —  Flooding  in  rectangular  checks. 


,„„„„! 


the  Mexicans  —  and  for  similar  plants  raised  in 
ridges,  a  modification  is  introduced,  as  shown  in 
squares  2,  3,  and  4.  Ridges  are  made  in  the  beds 


RIDGES    IN    CHECKS. 


IQI 


in  such  a  form  that  the  water  is  compelled  to  flow 
around  and  along  these  until  the  bed  is  filled 
nearly  to  the  top  of  the  ridges;  then  it  is  let  into 

Main     D/fch 


FIG.  54.  —  Plan  of  irrigated  garden  divided  into  compartments  or  checks. 

the  next  bed  and  the  operation  is  repeated.     Chi- 
nese gardeners  also  follow  this  plan. 

Instead  of  turning  the  water  from  one  bed  into 


192  IRRIGATION. 

another,  it  is  sometimes  customary  to  provide 
lateral  ditches  in  such  form  that  the  water  can 
flow  into  each  compartment  without  passing  through 
the  other,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  54.  In  this  way 
washing  of  the  soil  is  prevented,  and  the  amount 
can  be  regulated  with  great  care  for  each  variety 
of  crop. 

On  land  nearly  level,  but  with  small  inequalities, 
it  has  been  customary  to  smooth  these  off  by  plough 
and  scraper,  or  by  dragging  a  heavy  iron  beam 
across  the  field,  pulling  the  hummocks  into  the 
hollows.  The  cost  of  levelling  is  usually  very  great, 
and  it  is  only  for  the  most  valuable  crops  and  or- 
chards that  this  is  done.  Where  the  undulations 
are  of  such  an  extent  that  they  cannot  be  removed 
by  this  method,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  practise 
check  flooding,  to  adjust  the  shape  of  the  banks 
or  levees  to  suit  these  conditions.  Instead  of  mak- 
ing them  rectangular,  the  levees  are  built  along  the 
slopes  to  fit  the  contour  of  the  surface.  The  ac- 
companying figure  (5 5)  shows  how  these  levees  are 
built  along  a  side-hill  slope,  and  PI.  XXXI,  B,  illus- 
trates a  portion  of  one  of  these  on  irregular  ground. 

The  canal  brings  water  to  the  upper  side  of  the 
field  and  follows  along  on  a  gentle  grade.  Below 
this,  at  a  distance  such  that  a  bank  a  foot  or  two 
in  height  will  pond  the  water  back  to  the  side  of 
the  canal,  a  ridge  is  built.  The  distance  of  this 
ridge  from  the  canal  will  depend,  of  course,  upon 
the  slope  of  the  ground ;  if  very  gentle,  the  bank 


CHECKS   ON    SLOPING   LAND. 


193 


or  levee  can  be  100  feet  or  more  away,  while  with 
steeper  slopes  it  must  be  nearer.  A  series  of  such 
check  levees  follow,  in  their  course  approximately 


C/VSS       SfCT/Oft 


FlG.  55.  —  Checks  on  sloping  land. 

paralleling  that  of  the  canal,  and  make  a  number 
of  strips,  each  successively  lower,  as  shown  by  the 
section  from  a  to  b.  Water  is  let  into  these  strips 
by  means  of  small  distributary  ditches,  as  shown 
in  the  illustration. 


WATERING    BY    FURROWS. 


The  system  of  flooding  in  checks,  although  origi- 
nally practised  to  considerable  extent  in  the  South'- 


194  IRRIGATION. 

west,  has  gradually  been  given  up,  owing  to  the 
expense  of  levelling  and  leveeing  the  ground.  With 
experience  and  acquired  skill  the  irrigator  has  be- 
come able  to  apply  water  with  economy  without 
resorting  to  such  expensive  means.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  in  the  application  of  water  to  crops  which 
are  cultivated  in  furrows,  as,  for  example,  corn  and 
potatoes.  The  furrows  are  ploughed  in  such  a  direc- 
tion that  a  little  stream  will  flow  freely  down  them 
without  washing  away  the  soil. 

Water  is  taken  from  the  main  canal,  which  fol- 
lows approximately  the  contour  of  the  surface,  into 
the  distributing  ditches,  which  may  be  parallel  with 
the  canal  or  diverge  from  it.  If  the  land  is  nearly 
flat,  the  furrows  can  be  run  directly  away  from  the 
distributing  ditch  from  the  higher  to  the  lower  side 
of  the  field.  If,  however,  as  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying figure  (56),  the  slopes  are  steep,  the  furrows 
must  be  ploughed  diagonally  to  the  slope,  so  as  to 
reduce  the  velocity  of  the  little  rills. 

Water  is  turned  into  a  half  dozen  or  more  of 
these  furrows,  and  makes  its  way  gradually  toward 
the  lower  end.  As  soon  as  it  has  reached  this 
point,  the  stream  is  cut  off  and  turned  into  another 
set  of  furrows,  and  so  on  until  all  have  been  filled. 
The  slope  given  the  furrows  determines  to  a  certain 
extent  the  amount  of  water  received  by  the  soil.  If 
the  fall  is  very  gentle  the  water  moves  slowly  and 
a  large  portion  sinks  in  while  the  furrow  is  being 
filled ;  if  steep,  the  water  quickly  passes  to  the 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXXII. 


A.    CANVAS   DAM   IN  TEMPORARY   DITCH. 


ING  ALFALFA  FIELD. 


FURROW    IRRIGATION. 


195 


lower  end  and  the  ground  does  not  have  time  to 
absorb  as  much. 

When  the  entire  field  has  been  watered  and  the 
surface  has  become  sufficiently  dry  for  cultivation, 


FIG.  56.  —  Application  of  water  by  furrows. 

the  furrows  are  usually  ploughed  out  and  a  thin  layer 
of  the  top  soil  is  stirred  to  make  an  open  porous  cov- 
ering or  mulch,  preventing  excessive  evaporation 
and  allowing  the  air  to  enter  the  ground.  Without 
such  cultivation  a  hard  crust  may  be  formed,  which, 
although  retarding  circulation  and  apparently  im- 
pervious, yet  permits  continual  evaporation.  The 
loosening  of  this  crust  breaks  the  capillary  connec- 
tion with  the  moisture  beneath,  and  thus  lessens  the 
loss  of  water. 

The  fields  of  small  grain,  after  sowing,  are  usually 
rolled  with  a  device  known  as  a  marker.  This  con- 
sists of  a  heavy  roller  upon  which  are  projections 


196 


IRRIGATION. 


so  arranged  as  to  make  small  parallel  furrows. 
These  are  rolled  in  the  direction  of  the  desired 
slope,  so  that  the  water  can  flow  down  the  marks 
through  the  grain,  as  it  would  in  furrows  through  a 
corn  field.  The  rapidly  growing  grain  shades  the 
surface,  and  prevents  the  formation  of  crust,  render- 
ing subsequent  cultivation  unnecessary  even  if  it 
were  practicable.  Instead  of  a  roller  various  de- 
vices are  used  to  make  these  small  furrows,  the 
object  being  to  provide  channels  for  evenly  distrib- 
uting the  water. 

The  ditches  are  ploughed  through  the  fields  and 
water  is  forced  out  of  them  either  by  putting  in 
temporary  obstructions  of  dirt,  boards,  or  sheet 
metal  or  by  a  small  canvas  dam.  This  latter  con- 


FlG.  57.  —  Water  turned  from  furrow  by  canvas  dam. 

sists  of  a  piece  of  stout  cloth,  one  edge  of  which  is 
tacked  to  a  stick  long  enough  to  extend  across  the 
lateral  ditch  or  furrow.  The  canvas,  falling  into 
the  furrow,  fits  the  sides  and  bottoms,  and  is  held 
in  place  by  a  clod  of  dirt  thrown  upon  it.  Water 


TAPPOONS. 


197 


meeting  the  obstruction  still  further  forces  the  can- 
vas down,  making  a  fairly  tight  dam,  against  which 
it  accumulates  and  overflows  into  the  field,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  57.  After  sufficient  water  has  been  turned 
out  at  this  point,  the  canvas  dam  (Fig.  58)  is  pulled 
up  and  carried  farther  down  the  ditch,  where  it  is 
again  placed  in  it  and  another  section  of  the  field  is 
irrigated.  This  method  is  illustrated  in  PL  XXXII. 


FIG.  58.  —  Canvas  dam. 

A  drawing  of  a  canvas  dam  is  shown  in  Fig.  58. 
There  are  also  given  (in  Figs.  59  and  60)  illustra- 
tions of  different  forms  of  simple  devices  for  con- 
trolling the  water  flowing  in  furrows  and  small 
ditches,  known  as  tappoons,  a  word  in  common  use 
in  the  Southwest,  but  not  generally  employed  out- 
side of  southern  California  and  Arizona.  In  Fig. 
59  are  shown  two  forms  of  metal  tappoons,  these 
having  an  oval  or  rounded  outline  in  order  to  fit 
into  the  furrows.  The  sheet  of  metal  is  pressed 
down  into  the  soft  soil,  obstructing  the  flow.  The 
tappoon  is  sometimes  strengthened  by  means  of  a 
central  rib  or  pin,  which  projects  below,  as  shown  in 


I98 


IRRIGATION. 


the  left-hand  drawing,  and  prevents  the  tappoon 
from  being  washed  out. 


FIG.  59.  —  Metal  tappoons. 

These  tappoons  sometimes  consist  merely  of  a 
board  of  sufficient  width  to  extend  across  the 
furrow.  In  case  it  is  desired  to 
let  a  certain  amount  of  water 
pass  this  point,  one  or  more 
holes  are  bored  in  the  tappoon, 
these  being  closed  by  a  plug 
when  not  in  use. 


FIG.  60. —Wooden 
tappoon  provided 
with  outlets. 


FIG.  61.  —  Metal  tappoon  with  measuring 
gate. 


A    more   elaborate    device  of    this   character  is 
shown   in    Fig.  61,  being   a    small    portable  metal 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXXIII. 


WILD   FLOODING.  199 

dam  or  tappoon,  with  a  rectangular  opening  for 
measuring  roughly  a  certain  quantity  of  water. 
This  can  be  provided  with  a  sliding  door  or  gate, 
permitting  the  passage  of  a  stream  of  water  of  a 
given  number  of  square  inches.  If  the  pressure  is 
maintained  at  from  4  to  6  inches  above  the  centre 
of  the  opening,  the  delivery  can  be  computed  in 
miner's  inches. 

WILD    FLOODING. 

With  care  it  may  be  possible  to  dispense  with 
checks  or  furrows  and  to  apply  water  with  con- 
siderable uniformity.  For  grass  land,  clover,  al- 
falfa, and  similar  forage  plants  it  is  not  feasible  to 
provide  furrows,  and  water  must  be  applied  by 
what  is  usually  known  as  "  wild  flooding."  That 
is  to  say,  it  is  led  to  the  upper  part  of  the  field  and 
there  turned  loose  in  such  a  way  as  to  cover  the 
surface  with  a  thin  layer.  Much  care  is  required 
to  do  this,  far  more  than  when  checks  or  furrows 
have  been  made.  To  get  the  water  to  the  right 
places  it  is  usual  to  provide  through  the  fields 
shallow  depressions  which  serve  to  guide  the 
water.  From  these  it  spreads  out  in  thin  sheets. 
The  system  is  illustrated  by  accompanying  dia- 
grams, in  which  the  attempt  is  made  to  exhibit  the 
distributing  laterals  through  the  fields  and  the 
course  taken  by  the  water  in  coming  from  these. 

In  Fig.  62  the  broken  lines  are  contours,  or 
points  of  equal  elevation.  The  supply  ditch  is 


2OO 


IRRIGATION. 


seen  following  along  one  of  these,  with  gradually 
descending  grade.  From  this  are  laterals  or  tem- 
porary ditches  following  down  the  leading  ridges. 
On  each  side  of  these  temporary  ditches  are 
slight  elevations  of  the  nature  of  check  levees, 


""'"»/////,„ 


FIG.  62.  —  Plan  of  wild  flooding. 

which  tend  to  throw  the  water  outward  along  the 
contours.  Spreading  along  above  these,  the  water 
gradually  overflows  and  finds  its  way  down  the 
slope  in  a  sheet  or  numerous  rills,  as  indicated  by 
the  irregular  lines. 

In  order  to  thoroughly  wet  the  field,  the  irrigator 


UNDULATING   LANDS. 


201 


takes  advantage  of  all  the  smaller  ridges  or  in- 
equalities, running  the  water  out  upon  these,  and 
not  allowing  it  to  escape  into  the  depressions  until 
it  has  thoroughly  wet  the  surface.  Not  all  the 
water  will  soak  into  the  ground,  and  the  excess 


FIG.  63.  —  Plan  of  distributing  water  on  rolling  lands. 

which  collects  in  the  depressions  is  again  con- 
ducted out  along  contours  to  the  next  lower 
series  of  ridges.  The  general  theory  of  applying 
water  is  shown  by  Fig.  63,  where  the  temporary 
ditch  is  subdivided  to  flow  around  the  head  of  a 
slight  depression.  The  direction  of  the  arrows 


202 


IRRIGATION. 


shows  the  way  in  which  the  streams  of  water  are 
supposed  to  be  distributed,  gradually  vanishing  into 
the  grass  land  or  cultivated  field.  A  portion  of 
the  stream  reappears  in  the  depressions,  as  in- 
dicated by  the  line  and  arrows  in  the  centre  of 
the  drawing.  This  stream,  when  it  attains  consid- 
erable size,  is  gradually  conducted  out  and  used  on 
lower  portions  of  the  field. 

ORCHARDS    AND    VINEYARDS. 

In  the  localities  where  the  best   orchards  and 
vineyards  are  located,  usually  water  is  in  greatest 


FIG.  64.  —  Box  for  distributing  water  in  an  orchard. 

demand,  and  extraordinary  care  must  be  taken  to 
secure  economy  in  its  use.     The  necessary  supply 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXXIV. 


FURROW   IRRIGATION   Ol 


B.     FURROW  IRRIGATION   OF  ORCHARD. 


ORCHARDS   AND    VINEYARDS. 


203 


is  conducted,  often  by  cement-lined  ditches  and  by 
wooden  flumes,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  trees  and 
vines,  and  is  then  turned  out  into  furrows  between 
the  trees  as  shown  on  PL  XXXIII.  One  of  these 
boxes  or  flumes  is  shown  in  the  drawing  (Fig.  64). 
The  water,  issuing  from  small  apertures  in  the  side 
of  a  wooden  box,  falls  into  the  furrows  and  is 
immediately  conducted  to  the  vicinity  of  the  trees. 


FIG.  65.  — Outlet  from  side  of  small  flume. 

The  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  65)  shows 
the  outlet  from  the  side  of  one  of  these  small 
flumes  or  distributing  boxes.  These  small  gates 
are  placed  at  intervals  of  from  3  to  5  feet  or  more, 
and  a  number  of  them  are  opened  at  a  time,  each 
delivering  water  into  a  furrow.  These  furrows 
having  received  a  sufficient  quantity,  the  small 
gates  are  closed  and  another  set  opened. 

Some  irrigators  still  adhere  to  the  method  of  irri- 


204 


IRRIGATION. 


gating  trees  in  small  pools  or  basins,  although  this 
is  not  regarded  as  desirable  because  of  the  ten- 
dency of  the  roots  under  these  conditions  to  de- 
velop near  the  surface.  It  is  claimed,  however, 
that  water  can  be  more  economically  used  in  this 
way.  The  following  figure  (66),  made  from  a  pho- 
tograph taken  in  an  orchard  near  Los  Angeles, 


.    --  - .-  • 


Vic,.  66. —  Orchard  irrigation  by  pools. 

California,   shows  the  lower  end  of  a  system  of 
small  basins  into  which  an  orchard  is  divided. 

The  soil  on  the  side-hills  is  often  excellent  in 
quality  for  the  production  of  fruits,  and  the  ele- 
vated portions  of  a  valley  are  frequently  freer 
from  frosts  than  the  bottom  lands.  For  this  rea- 
son orchards  have  been  set  out  on  sloping  lands, 
and  methods  of  irrigation  have  been  adapted  to 
the  ground.  The  next  figure  (67)  shows  one 


SIDE-HILL  WATERING. 


205 


of  the  ways  in  which  a  small  stream  of  water  is 
conducted  down  the  slope.  If  allowed  to  flow 
freely  this  would  wash  for  itself  a  deep  channel. 
It  is  therefore  confined  in  a  small  wooden  flume, 
dropping  vertically  at  short  intervals.  Along  the 
horizontal  portions  of  the  flume  small  outlets  are 
arranged,  and  water  is  taken  from  these  into  fur- 
rows leading  along  the  contour  of  the  ground. 


FlG.  67. —  Irrigation  on  slope  with  stepped  flume. 

Care  is  usually  taken  that  the  water  shall  not 
actually  touch  the  tree  trunks  ;  it  is  kept  far 
enough  away  to  wet  the  ground  within  the  radius 
of  the  roots,  to  encourage  these  to  spread  out- 
wardly as  far  as  possible.  After  the  water  has 
traversed  the  furrows  through  the  orchard  until  it 
has  reached  the  far  end,  the  supply  is  cut  off,  and 
the  ground  is  tilled  as  soon  as  the  surface  dries 
sufficiently. 


206  IRRIGATION. 

On  PI.  XXXIV  are  given  two  views,  the  upper 
one,  A,  being  of  furrow  irrigation  of  vines,  and  the 
lower,  B,  of  similar  methods  of  irrigating  a  young 
orchard.  In  both  of  these  views  water  is  shown 
as  applied  lavishly,  especially  in  the  lower,  where 
the  soil  is  apparently  being  washed  away.  Such 
use  of  water  is  possible  only  where  large  amounts 
are  to  be  had,  although  even  where  there  are  small 
quantities  it  is  sometimes  economical  to  store  this 
in  small  tanks  or  reservoirs  and  run  out  a  large 
volume  at  once,  in  order  to  give  the  ground  a 
thorough  wetting ;  by  so  doing  the  water  can  be 
distributed  more  uniformly  to  all  parts  of  the  or- 
chard. The  course  of  the  water  is  being  directed 
by  the  irrigators,  who  by  means  of  long-handled 
shovels  keep  the  furrows  open  or  close  them  by 
throwing  in  clods  of  earth,  constant  attention  being 
given  to  the  course  of  the  water,  so  that  it  will  not 
accumulate  in  depressions. 

The  next  view,  PL  XXXV,  shows  a  young  or- 
chard for  which  a  distributing  system,  designed 
for  permanence  and  economy  of  water,  has  been 
constructed.  The  distributing  ditch  is  of  cement 
and  is  provided  with  a  series  of  drops  or  small  falls 
and  gates  by  which  the  water  can  be  raised  and 
forced  to  flow  out  through  small  apertures  in  the 
sides.  The  character  of  the  cultivation  which  fol- 
lows the  application  of  water  is  shown  by  a  view 
of  a  more  mature  orchard,  PI.  XXXVI. 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXXV. 


USE   OF   TILES.  207 

SUBIRRIGATION. 

In  order  to  reach  still  greater  economy,  attempts 
have  been  made  to  conduct  the  water  beneath  the 
surface  immediately  to  the  roots  of  the  trees,  thus 
preventing  waste  by  evaporation  from  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  Various  devices  have  been  tried, 
but  few  of  these  have  been  successful,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  roots  of  the  trees  rapidly  seek  out 
the  source  of  water  and  develop  there,  entering 
the  openings  from  which  the  water  issues,  or  sur- 
rounding the  pipe  by  a  dense  network.  Porous 
clay  tiling  has  been  laid  through  orchards,  and  also 
iron  pipes  perforated  so  as  to  furnish  a  supply  of 
water  along  their  length.  A  machine  for  mak- 
ing cement  pipe  in  place  has  also  been  invented 
and  successfully  used.  Small  trenches  are  dug 
through  the  orchard  between  the  trees,  and  the 
pipe-making  machine  deposits  the  material  in  the 
trench,  which  is  filled  as  soon  as  the  cement  is 
set.  Water  is  thus  distributed  underground  where 
needed. 

In  a  number  of  orchards  where  the  subsurface 
irrigation  has  been  unsuccessful  because  of  the 
roots  stopping  up  minute  openings  beneath  the 
surface,  the  system  has  been  reconstructed  and 
water  brought  to  the  surface  at  or  near  each  tree 
by  means  of  small  hydrants,  shown  in  Fig.  68. 
Vertical  pipes  are  placed  at  short  intervals,  leading 
to  the  level  of  the  ground,  and  in  these  are  small 


208 


IRRIGATION. 


iron  gates  or  shutters  so  arranged  that  the  flow 
can  be  cut  off  in  the  buried  pipe.  Pushing  down 
one  of  these  gates,  the  water  rises  and  overflows 
the  surface  until  a  sufficient  amount  has  been 
obtained.  This  gate  is  then  raised  and  the  next 
is  pushed  down,  and  so  on  until  water  has  been 
caused  to  overflow  at  each  point  in  succession 
down  the  slope  of  the  ground. 


FIG.  68. —  Pipes  and  hydrants  for  distributing  water  in  an  orchard. 

For  annual  or  root  crops  subirrigation  has  been 
successfully  practised  by  the  use  of  the  small 
perforated  pipes,  which  allow  a  small  amount  of 
water  to  escape  at  short  intervals.  These  pipes 
are  laid  12  inches  or  more  beneath  the  surface,  and 
are  connected  with  lines  of  tile  leading  from  the 
reservoir  or  source  of  supply.  As  the  crops  are 
removed  each  year  and  the  ground  cultivated,  the 
roots  do  not  have  an  opportunity  of  entering  and 
stopping  the  pipes. 


SUBIRRIGATION    SYSTEM. 


209 


340  FT. LONG 


3  in. 


3  inch  farm  drain  tile  without  socket 


The  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  69)  is  a 
plan  of  one  of  the  small  systems  of  subirrigation 
devised  and  successfully  used  by  a  Kansas  farmer, 
and  is  given  as  being  typical  of  a  number  of  de- 
vices of  this  kind.  The  3-inch  tiles  are  laid  15 
inches  below  the 
surface  and  10 
feet  apart.  The 
joints  are  closed 
with  cement, 
with  the  excep- 
tion of  about  an 
inch  on  the  un- 
der side  of  the 
tiles,  a  small 
amount  of  water 
escaping  at  this 
point.  In  the 
construction  2\ 
acres  were  laid 
and  cemented  in 
ten  days.  Water 
is  supplied  to  the 

tiling  at  the  rate  of  about  20  gallons  per  minute. 
The  grade  is  such  that  the  tiling  acts  as  a  drain  if 
at  any  time  too  much  water  is  received  from 
rainfall.  The  success  of  such  an  undertaking 
depends  largely  upon  the  character  of  the  sub- 
soil, as  well  as  of  the  soil  itself.  If  the  subsoil  is 
extremely  porous,  the  water  may  sink  away  with- 


FiG.  69.  —  Plan  of  subirrigating  system. 


210  IRRIGATION. 

out  reaching  the  surface.  Where  the  structure 
is  such  that  the  water  is  transmitted  horizontally, 
these  systems  of  subirrigation  have  been  used  to 
great  advantage. 

A  common  mistake  made  in  constructing  these 
subirrigation  systems  has  consisted  in  giving  the 
pipes  an  inclination  so  great  that  the  water  runs 
immediately  to  the  lower  end,  and  does  not  sat- 
urate the  ground  uniformly.  The  pipes  should 
be  laid  nearly  horizontal.  Sometimes  the  pipes 
have  been  buried  too  deep  in  a  clayey  subsoil  and 
the  water  would  not  spread  laterally  until  the 
pipes  were  raised  nearer  the  surface. 

For  the  purpose  of  subirrigating,  tile  is  preferred, 
as  being  permanent,  but  other  material  has  been 
used,  such,  for  example,  as 
galvanized  sheet  iron,  this 
being  laid  with  an  open  seam 
at  the  bottom,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  70.  The  opening  is 
made  smaller  than  indicated 
by  the  drawing,  so  that  the 
water  will  not  escape  with 
too  great  rapidity.  In  a 

number  °f  i-»*"ces  the 
increased  yield  of  a  single 
crop  has  more  than  repaid  the  cost  of  a  sub- 
irrigation  system.  Where  the  conditions  are  favor- 
able the  economy  resulting  in  distribution  of  water 
in  this  way  is  very  great.  There  is  no  loss  by 


NATURAL    SUBIRRIGATION.  211 

direct  evaporation  or  by  wetting  soil  at  a  distance 
from  the  growing  plants. 

The  term  "  subirrigation  "  is  occasionally  applied 
to  conditions  occurring  in  nature  such  that  water 
percolates  freely  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground 
for  considerable  distances  in  a  sheet  sufficiently 
near  the  surface  to  supply  the  need  of  crops.  The 
ground  is  not  actually  saturated,  but  sufficient  mois- 
ture is  transmitted  to  nourish  the  plants  without 
drowning  or  waterlogging  the  soil.  These  sub- 
irrigated  areas,  so-called,  are  often  located  in  broad 
valleys  along  a  stream  from  which  the  water  finds 
its  way  outward  beneath  the  surface.  They  are 
also  occasionally  found  upon  gentle  side  slopes,  the 
moisture  coming  from  some  stream  or  canyon  and 
tending  to  form  springs  near  the  edge  of  the  valley. 

Where  the  subsoil  has  a  texture  such  that  it 
transmits  water  freely,  the  building  of  irrigation 
ditches  may  subirrigate  large  tracts  of  country 
without  rendering  them  marshy.  Such  conditions 
are  found,  for  example,  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Anthony, 
Idaho,  where  certain  farms  obtain  an  ample  supply 
of  water  from  ditches  a  half  mile  or  more  away, 
without  the  necessity  of  distributing  small  streams 
over  the  surface.  Also  in  the  vicinity  of  Fresno, 
California,  vineyards  are  maintained  in  good  con- 
dition," although  water  has  not  been  visibly  applied 
for  many  years.  The  closing  of  the  ditches  would, 
however,  result  in  gradual  drying  up  of  the  ground, 
and  the  farmers  benefited  by  subirrigation  must 


212  IRRIGATION. 

of  necessity  pay  their  share  of  the  cost  of  main- 
taining the  ditches,  although  they  do  not  receive 
water  directly. 

This  process  of  subirrigation  gradually  merges 
into  swampy  conditions,  and  it  occasionally  happens 
that  the  lower  part  of  a  subirrigated  field  must  be 
drained  to  remove  the  excess  of  water.  This  can 
be  done  either  by  gravity  ditches  or  by  pumping 
devices,  sometimes  the  water  in  the  ditches  being 
utilized  to  actuate  water  wheels,  each  in  turn  oper- 
ating suitable  machinery  for  taking  the  excess  from 
the  low  points.  Where  electric  power  can  be  had 
at  small  cost,  pumps  have  been  erected  to  bring 
the  excess  water  from  underground  and  make  it 
available  for  the  irrigation  of  fields  otherwise  dry. 
In  portions  of  the  San  Joaquin  valley  of  California, 
where  electric  transmission  lines  have  been  con- 
structed leading  from  the  water  power  stations  in 
the  canyons,  small  centrifugal  pumps  are  thus  util- 
ized, the  motor  being  on  the  upper  end  of  the 
shaft  carrying  the  pump.  Lands  can  thus  be 
drained  and  water  provided  for  use  elsewhere. 
Even  in  localities  where  the  water  is  20  or  30  feet 
or  more  beneath  the  surface,  it  has  been  pumped 
by  electric  power  at  a  cost  far  less  than  is  paid  for 
the  ordinary  gravity  supply. 

AMOUNT    OF    WATER    APPLIED. 

The  amount  of  water  required  for  raising  crops 
varies  according  to  soil  and  other  conditions,  as 


WATER   NEEDED    FOR   AN    ACRE.  213 

noted  on  a  preceding  page.  The  plant  itself  needs 
a  certain  minimum  supply  in  order  to  receive  and 
assimilate  its  food  and  to  keep  up  transpiration. 
A  far  larger  quantity  is  required  to  saturate  the 
surrounding  soil  to  such  a  degree  that  the  vital- 
izing processes  can  continue.  The  soil  is  con- 
stantly losing  water  by  evaporation  and  by  seepage, 
so  that  the  amount  which  the  plant  takes  from 
it  is  relatively  small.  Nevertheless,  the  moisture 
must  be  maintained  within  narrow  limits  in  order 
to  produce  the  most  favorable  conditions  of  plant 
growth. 

Experiments  have  been  made  to  determine 
exactly  how  much  water  is  needed  in  order  to 
keep  the  soil  in  proper  condition  for  plants  of  dif- 
ferent character.  Among  the  most  important 
investigations  are  those  by  Professor  F.  H.  King 
of  Madison,  Wisconsin,  who  has  found  by  direct 
measurement  that  from  300  to  500  pounds  of  water 
are  required  for  each  pound  of  dry  matter  pro- 
duced. In  other  words,  for  each  ton  of  hay  raised 
upon  an  acre  300  to  500  tons  of  water  must  be 
furnished  either  by  rainfall  or  by  artificial  means. 

Water  covering  an  acre  one  inch  in  depth 
weighs  about  113  tons,  and  to  produce  one  ton  of 
hay  the  depth  of  water  required  is  approximately 
from  3  to  5  inches.  It  is  necessary  to  furnish  at 
least  this  amount,  and  sometimes  several  times  as 
much,  in  order  to  produce  a  crop.  The  actual 
amount  used  in  producing  5  tons  of  barley  hay 


214  IRRIGATION. 

to  the  acre  has  been  about  20  inches  in  depth. 
Much  depends  upon  the  permeability  of  the  soil, 
and  its  ability  to  hold  water. 

The  quantity  of  water  used  in  irrigation  is  usu- 
ally stated  in  one  of  two  ways  —  either  (i)  in  terms 
of  depth  of  water  on  the  surface,  or  (2)  in  quan- 
tities of  flowing  water  through  the  irrigating  sea- 
son. The  first  method  is  preferable,  since  it  is 
susceptible  of  more  definite  consideration,  and  is 
also  more  convenient  for  comparison  with  figures 
for  rainfall,  which  are  given  in  inches  of  depth.  In 
the  humid  regions  rainfall  is  usually  from  3  to  4 
inches  per  month  during  the  crop  season.  In  the 
arid  region,  where  the  sunlight  is  more  continuous 
and  the  evaporation  greater,  there  should  be,  for 
the  ordinary  crops  at  least,  enough  water  during 
the  growing  season  to  cover  the  ground  from  4  to 
6  inches  in  depth  each  month.  Carefully  tilled 
orchards  have  been  maintained  on  far  less.  In 
Arizona,  where  the  crop  season  is  longest,  being 
practically  continuous  throughout  the  year,  twice 
as  much  water  is  needed  as  in  Montana,  where  the 
crop  season  is  short  and  the  evaporation  is  less. 

The  second  method  of  stating  the  quantities 
necessary  for  irrigation  is  of  convenience  when 
considering  a  stream  upon  which  there  is  no  stor- 
age. It  is  frequently  estimated  that  one  cubic  foot 
per  second,  or  second-foot,  flowing  through  an  irri- 
gating season  of  90  days,  will  irrigate  100  acres. 
One  second-foot  will  cover  an  acre  nearly  2  feet 


WETTING   NEW   LANDS.  215 

deep  during  24  hours,  and  in  90  days  it  will  cover 
1 80  acres  i  foot  in  depth,  or  100  acres  to  a  depth 
of  1.8  feet,  or  21.6  inches.  This  is  equivalent  to 
a  depth  of  water  of  a  little  over  7  inches  per 
month.  In  several  of  the  states  laws  or  regula- 
tions have  been  made  to  the  effect  that  in  appor- 
tioning water  not  less  than  66|  acres  shall  be 
allowed  to  the  second-foot  of  continuous  flow. 
This  is  extremely  liberal,  and  permits  extravagant 
use  of  water. 

When  the  ground  is  first  irrigated  enormous 
quantities  of  water  must  sometimes  be  used  in 
order  to  saturate  the  subsoil.  It  has  frequently 
happened  that,  during  the  first  year  or  two,  a  quan- 
tity of  water  which  would  cover  the  ground  to  a 
depth  of  10  to  20  feet  has  been  turned  upon  the 
surface.  Frequently  for  several  years  an  amount 
equal  to  a  depth  of  5  feet  or  more  per  annum  is 
thus  employed.  Gradually,  however,  the  dry  soil 
is  filled,  and,  as  stated  in  another  place,  the  water 
table  is  raised  nearer  the  surface,  less  and  less 
water  being  needed. 

The  farmers,  being  accustomed  to  the  use  of 
large  quantities  of  water,  often  find  it  exceedingly 
difficult  to  get  along  with  less,  and  continue  to  use 
excessive  amounts,  often  to  their  own  disadvantage. 
They  are  actuated  in  part  by  the  consideration  that, 
having  paid  for  the  use  of  the  water,  they  are 
entitled  to  a  certain  quantity,  and  fear  that  if  they 
do  not  take  all  of  this  their  claim  to  it  may  be  dis- 


216  IRRIGATION. 

puted.  Some  of  them  actually  waste  water  to 
their  own  detriment  from  the  mistaken  belief  that 
in  so  doing  they  are  establishing  a  perpetual  right 
to  certain  quantities. 

With  the  gradual  development  of  the  country  and 
the  bringing  of  more  and  more  land  under  ditches, 
the  need  for  water  increases,  and  equity  demands 
that  no  irrigator  shall  take  more  than  he  can  put 
to  beneficial  use.  Flowing  water  must  be  consid- 
ered as  a  common  fund,  subject  to  beneficial  use  by 
individuals  according  to  orderly  rules,  each  man 
taking  only  the  amount  he  can  employ  to  advan- 
tage. Under  any  other  theory  full  development 
of  arid  regions  is  impossible. 

It  is  instructive  in  this  connection  to  know  what 
is  the  least  amount  of  water  which  has  been  used 
with  success.  To  learn  this,  it  is  necessary  to  go 
to  Southern  California,  where,  as  stated  on  previous 
pages,  the  supply  of  water  is  least,  relative  to  the 
demand  made  upon  it,  and  the  economy  is  corre- 
spondingly greatest.  Successive  years  of  deficient 
rainfall  in  California,  from  1897  to  1900,  while 
working  many  hardships,  served  to  prove  that  with 
careful  cultivation  crops,  orchards,  and  vineyards 
could  be  maintained  on  a  very  small  amount  of 
water.  In  some  cases  an  amount  not  exceeding 
six  inches  in  depth  of  irrigation  water  was  applied 
during  the  year,  this  being  conducted  directly  to 
the  plants,  and  the  ground  kept  carefully  tilled 
and  free  from  weeds. 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXXVI. 


DROUGHT    CONDITIONS.  2I/ 

During  these  times  of  drought  some  fruits,  as, 
for  example,  grapes,  apples,  olives,  peaches,  and 
apricots,  were  raised  without  irrigation,  but  a  most 
thorough  cultivation,  as  shown  on  PI.  XXXVI,  was 
practised.  Some  fruit  growers  insist  that,  in  the 
case  of  grapes,  for  example,  the  quality  is  better 
when  raised  without  artificially  applying  water, 
although  the  quantity  is  less.  It  has  been  stated 
that  in  raisin-making  there  is  less  contrast  than 
might  be  expected  between  the  irrigated  and  non- 
irrigated  vineyards,  for  although  the  yield  of  grapes 
raised  by  watering  is  far  heavier,  yet  after  drying 
the  difference  is  not  so  marked.  Wheat  and  barley, 
also,  according  to  some  farmers,  make  a  better  hay 
when  cultivated  dry,  but  the  weight  is  less.  Shade 
trees,  such,  for  example,  as  the  eucalyptus  or  Aus- 
tralian blue-gum,  the  catalpa,  mulberry,  and  acacia, 
grow  without  water  artificially  applied,  but  do  not 
reach  the  extraordinary  development  that  they  do 
when  near  irrigating  ditches.  It  is  almost  useless 
to  attempt  to  raise  the  citrus  fruits  without  plenty 
of  water. 

The  quantity  of  water  necessary  to  irrigate  an 
acre,  as  estimated  by  various  water  companies  in 
Southern  California,  ranges  from  I  miner's  inch  to 
5  acres  to  I  miner's  inch  to  10  acres,  the  miner's 
inch  in  this  connection  being  defined  as  a  quantity 
equalling  12,960  gallons  in  24  hours,  or  almost 
exactly  0.02  second-foot,  this  being  the  amount 
which  has  been  delivered  under  a  4-inch  head, 


218  IRRIGATION. 

measured  from  the  centre  of  the  opening.  Under 
this  assumption  I  second-foot  should  irrigate  from 
250  to  500  acres.  This  is  on  the  basis  of  delivering 
the  water  in  pipes  or  cemented  channels  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  trees  or  vines  to  be  irrigated. 

If  it  is  assumed  that  I  miner's  inch  is  allowed 
for  10  acres,  or  I  second-foot  for  500  acres,  this 
quantity  of  water  flowing  from  May  to  October, 
inclusive,  will  cover  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  a 
little  over  -f$  of  a  foot,  or  8.8  inches,  a  quantity 
which,  with  the  care  and  cultivation  usually  em- 
ployed, has  been  found  to  be  sufficient  for  some 
orchards.  Mr.  W.  Irving,  Chief  Engineer  of  the 
Gage  Canal,  Riverside,  California,  states  that  for 
the  year  ending  September  30,  1899,  water  ranging 
in  depth  from  1.78  to  2.48  feet  was  used  in  addi- 
tion to  the  rainfall  of  0.47  foot.  This  was  less 
than  the  usual  quantity,  economy  being  enforced 
by  shortage  of  supply. 

The  method  of  applying  water  governs  to  a 
large  extent  the  amount  used.  In  the  case  of 
alfalfa,  flooding  is  usually  practised ;  with  small 
grains  in  most  parts  of  the  West  the  water  is  run 
in  furrows  ;  while  in  the  case  of  orchards  the  water 
is  sometimes  applied  directly  to  each  tree.  In 
this  case  a  little  earth  basin,  about  6  feet  or  more 
across  and  6  inches  deep,  is  formed  around  each 
tree  and  partially  filled  with  water  as  shown  in 
Fig.  66.  The  better  way,  however,  is  that  of  run- 
ning water  in  furrows,  four  or  five  of  these  being 


ANNUAL   CHARGES.  219 

ploughed  between  each  two  rows  of  trees.  The 
water  is  applied  very  slowly,  several  days  being 
spent  in  watering  5  acres,  and  when  dry  the  ground 
is  thoroughly  cultivated. 

The  annual  charges  for  water  by  the  acre  in 
Southern  California,  where  this  economy  of  water 
is  practised,  have  been  as  low  as  $3,  and  from  this 
rising  to  $6  or  more  per  acre.  In  the  case  of 
the  San  Diego  Flume  Company  it  is  stated  that 
water  was  sold  for  $600  per  miner's  inch,  with  an 
annual  charge  or  rental  of  $60,  i  miner's  inch  be- 
ing considered  sufficient  for  from  10  to  20  acres. 
The  annual  charge  for  water  taking  the  arid  region 
as  a  whole  has  averaged  by  states  from  50  cents 
to  $2.00  per  acre,  or  $1.25  per  acre  for  the  entire 
country. 

The  conditions  in  Southern  California,  while  they 
may  be  considered  as  exceptional,  yet  indicate  the 
limiting  or  ideal  conditions  of  economical  use  of 
water.  For  good  farming  in  other  parts  of  the 
arid  region,  12  inches  of  water  in  depth  during 
the  crop  season  should  be  sufficient,  except  in  the 
case  of  alfalfa  and  other  forms  of  forage  which  are 
cut  a  number  of  times,  when  at  least  from  4  to  6 
inches  should  usually  be  given  to  a  cutting.  As 
previously  stated,  the  character  of  the  soil,  the 
temperature,  and  the  wind  movement  introduce  so 
many  conditions  that  broad  statements  of  this  kind 
are  merely  suggestive,  and  not  to  be  followed  as 
rules. 


220  IRRIGATION. 

Irrigation  is  usually  carried  on  during  the  day- 
time, and  it  is  unusual  for  water  to  be  applied  dur- 
ing the  night,  other  than  to  arrange  the  head 
gates  and  allow  the  water  to  flow  to  certain  por- 
tions of  the  field.  In  times  of  scarcity,  however, 
when  water  can  be  had  only  at  certain  hours,  night 
irrigation  must  be  carried  on,  and  the  water  care- 
fully applied,  with  as  much  skill  as  possible  in  the 
darkness.  Night  irrigation,  although  possessing 
disadvantages,  has  many  advocates.  The  air  being 
cooler,  excessive  evaporation  is  checked,  there  is 
less  loss  and  consequently  more  economy  in  use, 
and  the  plants  are  not  so  suddenly  chilled  as  during 
the  heat  of  the  day  when  cold  water  is  run  upon 
the  fields ;  and  the  proportional  amount  of  water 
received  during  the  night  is  often  greater  than 
during  the  daytime,  and  the  charge  or  cost  is 
correspondingly  less  ;  so  that,  for  economy  in  vari- 
ous directions,  night  irrigation  is  sometimes  pre- 
ferred. 

ARRANGEMENT    OF    IRRIGATED    FARM. 

The  accompanying  drawing  (Fig.  71)  gives  the 
general  arrangement  of  a  farm  under  irrigation. 
The  main  ditch  is  shown  in  the  upper  right-hand 
corner,  this  being  the  highest  portion  of  the  land. 
In  this  angle  is  the  garden,  the  root  crops  being 
shown  as  cultivated  in  furrows.  Near  this  is  the 
orchard,  so  laid  out  that  the  water  flows  along  the 
trees  set  on  contours,  this  portion  of  the  land  being 


FIG.  71.  —  Plan  of  an  irrigated  farm. 


222  IRRIGATION. 

on  a  slight  side-hill.  Farther  down  another  part 
of  the  orchard  is  more  nearly  level,  and  the  trees 
are  arranged  in  straight  lines.  Adjacent  to  the 
orchard  is  a  crop  of  corn,  which  is  irrigated  in 
rows. 

Running  irregularly  through  the  farm  below  the 
orchard  is  a  distributing  lateral  connected  with  the 
main  ditch,  but  receiving  also  any  excess  water 
from  the  higher  land.  From  this  distributing  lat- 
eral water  is  taken  out  at  short  intervals  into  the 
alfalfa  and  wheat,  both  of  which  are  irrigated  by 
flooding.  Below  this  land  in  turn  is  shown  another 
lateral  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  the  drawing, 
this  receiving  any  excess  water  and  carrying  it  to 
other  fields. 

As  a  result  of  continued  irrigation,  the  ground 
water  in  the  vicinity  of  the  farm  is  gradually 
raised,  and  soon  after  irrigation  has  been  intro- 
duced the  amount  needed  annually  decreases 
rapidly  by  reason  of  the  gradual  saturation  of  the 
subsoil.  This  is  shown  diagrammatically  in  the 
accompanying  figure,  which  gives  a  plan  of  another 
farm  and  a  section  showing  the  condition  of  the 
ground.  In  the  plan,  Fig.  72,  is  shown  a  main 
canal  flowing  diagonally  across  from  left  to  right. 
Lateral  ditches  are  taken  out  of  the  main  ditch  and 
carried  along  two  sides  of  the  farm,  this  being 
possible  because  of  the  slope,  indicated  by  the  con- 
tours. From  these  lateral  ditches  on  the  two  sides, 
distributing  ditches  flow  inward  toward  the  main 


.'!  .'  -Ground  Water  •    October  to  De 


'.  .   Ground  Water    befo"e'lrriaaiion  Commencedf1S70)   .-  •  " 


FIG.  72.  —  Rise  of  ground  water  following  irrigation. 


224  IRRIGATION. 

canal,  following  in  a  general  way  along  the  contours. 
One  of  these  ditches  forks  to  embrace  a  depression, 
so  that  water  can  be  carried  toward  this  from  both 
sides.  Consequent  upon  irrigation  being  carried 
on  continuously,  the  ground  water,  which  previ- 
ously was  from  15  to  18  feet  beneath  the  surface, 
has  been  raised  to  within  6  or  8  feet  of  the  surface, 
as  shown  by  wells.  During  the  irrigating  season 
the  water  is  brought  still  nearer  the  surface,  as 
indicated  in  Fig.  72. 

In  a  case  of  excessive  use  of  water  and  see- 
page from  higher  lands,  this  gradual  rise  may  be- 
come destructive  by  waterlogging  soil  or  forming 
marshes.  The  most  serious  dangers  from  this 
cause  are  the  liability  of  producing  disease  in 
plant  roots  if  permanently  submerged,  and  of 
bringing  alkaline  salts  to  the  surface.  This  matter 
is  further  discussed  on  pages  76  and  281. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

UNDERGROUND   WATERS. 

IN  the  preceding  pages  consideration  has  been 
given  mainly  to  the  water  which  flows  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  in  the  form  of  creeks  or  rivers, 
or  stands  without  apparent  motion  in  ponds.  It 
is  important,  however,  not  to  neglect  the  waters 
which,  although  out  of  sight,  are  circulating  be- 
neath the  surface,  and  which,  in  the  aggregate, 
play  an  important  part  in  the  reclamation  of  arid 
land  as  well  as  in  various  industries.  In  the  humid 
region  the  ground  is  usually  saturated  with  water 
nearly  to  the  roots  of  the  trees.  In  the  arid  region, 
however,  the  plane  of  saturation,  or  water  table, 
as  it  is  termed,  may  be  at  great  depth.  Water 
applied  to  the  surface  tends  to  sink  to  the  lowest 
possible  level,  but  may  be  prevented  from  so 
doing  by  an  impervious  layer.  Beneath  the  irri- 
gated fields  there  sometimes  exists  a  thickness  of 
several  hundred  feet  of  dry  rocks,  but,  as  a  rule, 
these  are  in  time  filled  with  water,  and  an  under- 
ground circulation  is  set  up  comparable  to  that 
existing  in  humid  countries. 
Q  225 


226  IRRIGATION. 

RETURN    WATERS. 

In  the  process  of  irrigation,  a  portion  of  the 
water  applied  to  the  fields  evaporates.  Another 
portion  is  taken  up  by  the  plants  and  escapes  to 
the  air  through  the  leaves ;  this  is  the  part  that 
has  done  the  work  for  which  water  was  obtained 
and  applied.  Another  portion  sinks  into  the 
ground  and  gradually  passes  out  of  the  reach  of 
the  plants  by  percolating  downward  or  outward 
from  the  fields ;  this  portion  is  practically  lost  to 
the  irrigator,  and  represents  a  certain  amount  of 
wasted  material.  It  is  sometimes  impracticable 
to  guard  against  this  waste ;  but,  as  a  rule,  it  may 
be  said  that  water  escaping  over  or  beneath  the 
surface  indicates  poor  management. 

The  water  percolating  beneath  the  surface  is 
not  only  itself,  for  the  time  being,  lost,  but  it  is 
likely  to  carry  with  it  in  solution  valuable  earthy 
salts  or  plant  food,  washing  out  and  reducing  the 
richness  of  the  soil.  Sometimes  this  washing  is 
of  value,  as  when  the  soil  contains  an  excess  of 
soluble  alkali,  and  it  is  desired  to  get  rid  of  the 
injurious  superabundance. 

This  underground  water  gradually  travels  by 
percolation  or  seepage  along  the  path  of  least 
resistance,  filling  up  the  voids  and  gradually 
accumulating  until  it  has  raised  the  level  of  the 
water  plane  to  the  point  of  overflow.  It  seeks  the 
lowest  points,  these  being  usually  along  the  drain- 


RETURN   WATERS.  22/ 

age  lines  of  the  valley.  Here  the  water  again 
comes  to  the  surface,  after  a  lapse  of  weeks  or 
months,  forming  wet  places  or  springs,  and  aug- 
menting the  flow  of  a  stream.  Thus  it  happens 
that  some  of  the  water  taken  out  in  a  canal  during 
the  time  of  spring  floods  from  a  point  higher  up 
on  a  river  may  reappear  in  late  summer  at  a  lower 
point  along  the  river,  after  having  travelled  under- 
ground a  distance  of  several  miles.  This  seepage 
or  return  water,  if  not  heavily  charged  with  alkali, 
may  have  especial  value,  as  discussed  on  page  76. 
At  this  late  season  of  the  year  the  streams  are 
naturally  at  their  lowest  point  and  water  is  in 
greatest  demand. 

The  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  73)  shows  the 
conditions  which  were  found  during  a  season  in 
Ogden  Valley,  Utah.  The  space  from  left  to 
right  represents  the  time  from  July  5  to  August 
30,  1894.  The  distance  vertically  indicates  the 
quantity  of  water.  The  dotted  lines  show  the 
amount  of  water  used  in  irrigation ;  this  gradually 
diminishes  from  about  150  second-feet  on  the  5th 
of  July  to  44  second-feet  at  the  end  of  August. 
The  inflow  coming  into  the  head  of  the  valley  is 
shown  by  the  light  line,  being  about  165  second- 
feet  on  July  5,  and  decreasing  to  a  little  less  than 
75  second-feet.  The  amount  used  for  irrigation 
deducted  from  the  inflow  should  apparently  give 
the  outflow  from  the  valley.  On  the  contrary, 
however,  the  latter,  as  shown  by  the  heavy  line, 


228 


IRRIGATION. 


was,  almost  without  exception,  greater  than  the 
amount  coming  into  the  valley,  notwithstanding 
that  most  of  the  inflow  was  diverted  upon  the 
fields. 


JULY. 


AUGUST. 


10         15         20          25 


10          15         20          25 


S 


C/5      100 
Z 


a     » 


/nf/ow 


FIG.  73. —  Diagram  illustrating   inflow  and  outflow  of  Ogden  Valley, 
Utah. 

From  the  inspection  of  this  diagram  it  is  appar- 
ent that  the  outflow  of  the  valley  was  increased  by 
the  seepage  or  water  applied  to  the  fields  during 
earlier  months.  As  the  inflow  and  the  amount  of 
water  used  in  irrigation  diminished,  the  outflow 
steadily  increased. 

Because  of  this  large  amount  of  return  or  see- 
page water,  there  may  exist  the  anomalous  condi- 


UNDERFLOW.  229 

tion  of  a  tight  dam  across  a  river,  taking  out  all 
of  the  stream,  and  a  few  miles  below  the  dam 
pools  of  water  beginning  to  occur,  while  farther 
down  these  pools  overflow  and  imperceptibly  a 
stream  of  considerable  size  appears  in  the  channel, 
this  again  being  taken  out  by  another  tight  dam, 
and  so  on  for  a  number  of  times  in  succession. 

The  amount  of  land  irrigable  along  an  extensive 
river  system  is  thus  slowly  increased,  since  the 
water  used  in  early  spring  in  higher  valleys  may 
gradually  reappear  below  and  furnish  water  for 
fields  which  otherwise  would  be  dry.  Thus  when 
the  limit  of  irrigation  has  apparently  been  reached, 
there  ts  found  to  be  still  a  little  more  water,  the 
irrigable  area  widening  slowly  with  the  gradual 
development  of  irrigation  and  larger  use  of  water 
higher  on  the  stream.  This  irregularity  of  the 
rivers,  increasing  without  visible  cause,  has  been 
noted  on  page  73. 

UNDERFLOW. 

Water  beneath  the  surface,  generally  recognized 
as  occurring  in  all  regions  of  abundant  rainfall, 
has  attracted  especial  attention  when  found  in  arid 
or  semiarid  regions,  because  of  the  striking  con- 
trast with  surface  conditions.  In  view  of  the  dry- 
ness  of  the  climate  and  the  apparently  impervious 
condition  of  the  sod  cover,  it  did  not  seem  possible, 
when  first  noted,  that  this  water  could  come  from 
local  rainfall.  For  several  years  preceding  and 


230  IRRIGATION. 

succeeding  1890  attention  was  drawn  to  the  fact 
that  upon  portions  of  the  Great  Plains,  where  the 
climate  is  very  dry,  there  are  beneath  the  surface 
considerable  bodies  of  water-bearing  sands  and 
gravels.  These  are  mainly  in  the  broad  valleys 
occupied  by  intermittent  streams.  The  mistaken 
assumption  was  made  that  this  water  must  have 
come  from  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  and  is 
travelling  in  a  broad  sheet  with  continuous  flow 
toward  the  southeast.  The  average  fall  of  the 
plains  is  not  far  from  7  feet  to  the  mile,  and  it  was 
asserted  that  in  consequence  of  this  slope  the  water 
was  steadily  moving  as  a  vast  underground  river 
from  the  mountains  toward  the  Mississippi. ' 

Assuming  that  an  underflow  of  this  character 
existed,  it  was  argued  that  if  a  channel  were  cut 
into  the  ground,  following  up  a  valley  having  a 
slope  of  7  feet  to  the  mile,  but  with  a  rise  of  only 
i  foot  in  a  mile,  at  the  end  of  the  first  mile  the 
ditch  would  be  6  feet  below  the  surface,  and  in  10 
miles  it  would  be  60  feet  beneath  the  surface.  On 
this  slope  the  water  would  readily  run  out  of  the 
drain,  and  thus  the  underflow  would  be  intercepted 
and  brought  to  the  surface.  Many  thousand 
dollars  were  spent  in  attempting  to  construct  such 
underflow  ditches,  but  none  of  these  have  been 
successful. 

Nature  has  already  trenched  the  plains  with 
drainage  lines  of  this  character,  but  none  of  them 
deliver  any  considerable  amount  of  water.  It  is 


GREAT   PLAINS    UNDERFLOW.  231 

true  that  there  are  occasional  springs  in  the  sides 
or  bottoms  of  these  gullies  or  coulees,  but  the  resist- 
ance to  the  flow  underground  is  so  great  that  the 
water  does  not  percolate  freely  toward  outlets  of 
this  character.  The  plane  of  saturation,  or  water 
table,  follows  to  a  certain  extent  the  undulations  of 
the  ground,  and  is  not  maintained  horizontal,  as 
would  be  the  case  if  the  water  stood  in  an  open 
lake  or  pond. 

To  illustrate  this  point  we  may  assume  that  a 
pond  is  filled  with  gravel  and  sand.  The  surface 
of  the  water  at  first  is  perfectly  horizontal  from 
one  side  to  the  other.  Before  the  gravel  is  placed 
in  the  pond  the  water  can  be  drawn  down  and  will 
maintain  this  level  surface,  except  for  an  infinitely 
small  slope  dependent  upon  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  water  is  drawn  out.  After  the  gravel  is  thrown 
in  and  the  outlet  is  opened,  water  will  rush  out, 
but,  owing  to  the  restricting  influence  of  friction, 
the  surface  of  the  water  within  the  gravel  will  no 
longer  be  level,  but  will  assume  a  decided  slope 
toward  the  outlet.  In  course  of  time  this  slope 
will  decrease  and  tend  to  approach  the  horizontal, 
but  if  a  small  amount  of  water  is  added  gradually 
at  the  upper  edge  and  an  equal  amount  is  running 
out  at  the  lower  point,  there  will  be  permanently 
maintained  a  sloping  water  surface  within  the 
gravel. 

The  so-called  underflow  of  the  plains  consists  of 
the  small  amount  of  water  which  enters  the  ground 


232  IRRIGATION. 

from  occasional  local  rains  and  which  progresses 
toward  lower  points  at  the  rate  of  a  few  feet  a  year. 
Some  of  this  water  gradually  escapes  into  the 
natural  ravines,  or  occasionally  bursts  forth  as  a 
spring ;  but  the  plane  of  saturation  of  the  pervious 
rocks  is  not  horizontal ;  it  follows  often  the  slopes  of 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  sometimes  is  inclined 
at  a  high  angle.  The  digging  of  a  trench  into  this 
saturated  layer  introduces  a  change  in  the  slope  of 
the  water  surface,  making  it  dip  toward  the  new 
outlet.  The  total  amount  obtained  as  a  continuous 
flow  rarely  repays  the  cost  of  the  work. 

There  are,  however,  localities  where  underflow 
works  are  successful,  and  it  is  because  of  the 
excellent  results  attained  here  that  men  have 
argued  that  such  undertakings  can  profitably  be 
entered  upon  elsewhere.  But  the  conditions  which 
make  it  possible  to  obtain  water  from  under  ground 
are  radically  different  from  those  existing  upon  the 
Great  Plains.  There  the  gravel  beds  or  other 
pervious  strata  are  widespread,  and  are  not  usually 
bounded  by  well-defined  walls.  When,  however, 
gravels  and  boulders  are  found  filling  the  bottoms 
of  canyons,  as  in  Fig.  74,  it  is  possible  that  water 
may  be  moving  through  these  with  a  definite 
course  and  velocity. 

Such  conditions  are  found  throughout  the  moun- 
tainous portion  of  the  arid  regions.  The  streams 
which  flow  through  canyons  or  narrow  gorges  have, 
as  a  rule,  filled  up  their  beds.  In  ancient  times  the 


CANYON   UNDERFLOW.  233 

streams  cut  their  way  downward  into  the  solid 
rock  to  a  depth  considerably  below  the  present 
stream  channels.  In  modern  geologic  times  these 
ancient  channels  have  become  filled  to  a  depth  of 
10  feet,  20  feet,  or  even  100  feet  or  more.  The 
material  usually  consists  of  large  boulders,  with 
occasional  beds  of  gravel,  sand,  or  even  clay,  left 
in  protected  nooks. 

If  this  mass  of  material  partly  filling  the  can- 
yons is  dry,  and  a  heavy  rain  occurs  above,  the 
water  from  the  storm  will  flow  down,  saturating 
the  surface,  and  gradually  penetrating  the  lower 
layers  until  the  spaces  between  the  pebbles  are 
filled.  If  the  stream  continues  to  flow  for  several 
hours,  a  considerable  part  of  its  volume  may  be 
taken  in  by  the  gravel,  and  the  water  may  entirely 
disappear  in  the  course  of  a  mile  or  two,  leaving 
the  surface  dry.  A  creek  cannot  continue  to  flow 
undiminished  over  a  boulder  bed  until  the  latter  is 
completely  saturated  with  water.  A  little  considera- 
tion shows  that  if  water  is  withdrawn  from  the  per- 
vious material  beneath  the  surface  of  a  stream,  it 
must  be  replenished,  and  that  the  surface  discharge 
is  reduced  by  the  same  amount. 

The  water  saturating  the  gravels  tends  to  move 
downward  and  forward  under  the  influence  of 
gravity,  but  its  rate  of  flow,  being  diminished  by 
friction  and  by  adhesion  to  the  surfaces  of  the 
grains,  is  far  less  than  that  of  the  water  on  the 
surface.  While  the  latter  may  be  travelling  two 


234  IRRIGATION. 

or  three  miles  in  an  hour,  the  moisture  under- 
ground, even  in  coarse  gravels,  probably  does  not 
pass  over  this  distance  in  a  week  or  a  month.  The 
rate  of  flow  has  not  been  determined,  but  a  few 
experiments,  made  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, show  that  this  rate  is,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, extremely  slow. 


FIG.  74.  —  Dam  across  a  rocky  canyon,  cutting  off  the  underflow. 

The  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  74)  is  in- 
tended to  show  how  the  underflow  in  narrow  can- 
yons has  been  utilized.  An  impervious  dam,  the 
top  of  which  is  shown  in  the  figure  as  being  above 
the  surface,  is  built  to  bed  rock,  and  the  joints  at 
the  bottom  and  sides  are  made  water-tight.  Thus 
all  of  the  water  percolating  down  the  gravel  and 
boulder-filled  channel,  meeting  this  obstruction,  is 


UNDERFLOW   DAM.  235 

retained,  and,  accumulating,  may  appear  upon  the 
surface.  A  pipe  through  this  dam  will  draw  off 
the  water,  but  to  receive  the  largest  supply  it 
must  be  placed  near  the  bottom  of  the  dam  and 
not  near  the  surface,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 
By  means  of  such  a  submerged  dam,  small  quanti- 
ties of  water  are  obtained.  Where  the  channel  is, 
however,  of  indefinite  width,  such  dams  are  not 
practicable,  since  the  percolating  water  will  usually 
find  its  way  around  them. 

The  underflow  in  narrow  or  restricted  channels, 
such  as  have  been  described  above,  has  great  im- 
portance in  the  development  of  irrigation  and  as  a 
source  of  municipal  supply.  Many  controversies 
have  arisen  concerning  the  relation  which  this 
bears  to  the  surface  stream.  Some  persons  have 
contended  that  the  taking  of  water  by  means  of 
tunnels  or  other  works  built  far  beneath  the  sur- 
face does  not  perceptibly  diminish  the  visible  flow, 
claiming  that  the  two  streams  are  entirely  distinct, 
being  separated  by  impervious  layers,  or  by  a 
retardation  of  flow  which  behaves  as  an  imper- 
vious layer. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  cases  recently  de- 
cided, bearing  upon  the  character  and  ownership 
of  the  underflow,  is  that  of  the  Los  Angeles  River 
of  Southern  California.  The  stream  to  which  this 
name  is  applied  appears  upon  the  surface  near  the 
lower  end  of  San  Fernando  Valley.  The  visible 
water  gradually  increases  in  volume  as  the  valley 


236  IRRIGATION. 

narrows,  and  in  the  gorge  or  canyon  by  which  the 
stream  makes  its  exit  toward  the  ocean  it  attains 
a  considerable  and  fairly  constant  volume.  The 
river,  as  shown  on  PI.  XXXVII,  A,  appears  to 
come  from  marshy  ground,  and  might  be  said  to 
have  its  origin  here,  but  this  water  must  have 
come  primarily  from  the  rainfall ;  and  since  the 
valley  is  relatively  small,  the  amount  which  falls 
upon  it  would  not  be  sufficient  to  maintain  the 
river. 

Throughout  San  Fernando  Valley  are  many 
wells,  some  of  them  in  gravel  capable  of  yielding 
large  quantities  of  water.  Among  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  works  for  obtaining  underground 
water  are  those  of  a  company  which  purchased  a 
large  tract,  tunnelled  beneath  the  surface,  and  con- 
structed infiltration  galleries  from  which  large  and 
valuable  amounts  of  water  were  obtained.  The 
city  of  Los  Angeles,  owning  the  water  in  the 
river,  claimed  that  this  large  development  work, 
while  a  mile  or  more  from  the  visible  stream,  was 
in  effect  taking  water  out  of  the  river,  and  brought 
suit  to  restrain  this  unlawful  diversion. 

The  water  company  claimed  that  under  the  com- 
mon law  they  had  an  unquestionable  right  to  take 
all  of  the  water  found  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  land  which  they  owned,  since  this  water  flows 
or  percolates  underground  in  undefined  channels. 
It  was,  therefore,  incumbent  upon  the  city  to 
demonstrate  that  the  water  in  San  Fernando  Val- 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXX VI I. 


A.     WEIR    MEASUREMENTS    OF    LOS  ANGELES    RIVER    IN    SAN 
FERNANDO  VALLEY.   CALIFORNIA. 


B.     RESULTS    OF 


CALIFORNIA. 


IERN 


LOS   ANGELES    RIVER.  237 

ley  does  move  beneath  the  surface  in  defined  chan- 
nels, and  that  these  feed  the  Los  Angeles  River  as 
would  be  done  by  ordinary  surface  streams. 

To  make  the  situation  clear,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  explain  the  conditions  a  little  more  at  length. 
To  the  north  and  east  of  San  Fernando  Valley  is  a 
large  tributary  watershed,  coming  from  which  are 
several  streams,  the  most  important  of  these  being 
Big  and  Little  Tejunga  and  Pacoima  creeks.  The 
mountains  at  the  head  waters  of  these  streams  are 
high  and  receive  a  considerable  rainfall.  A  por- 
tion of  this  flows  in  the  streams  and  continues 
downward  to  the  edge  of  the  San  Fernando  Val- 
ley, where  it  gradually  disappears  in  the  gravel 
and  boulder  channels  or  washes  which  extend  out 
across  the  valley  toward  the  points  where  Los 
Angeles  River  rises.  These  washes  are  usually 
dry  on  the  surface,  except  in  the  rainy  season,  and 
thus  the  creeks  named  are  not  visibly  connected 
with  Los  Angeles  River. 

It  is  claimed  on  behalf  of  the  city  of  Los 
Angeles  that  the  water  progresses  gradually  be- 
neath the  surface  along  these  washes,  finally 
reappearing  in  the  river  to  maintain  the  continu- 
ous discharge.  The  rival  company's  works  were 
placed  within  these  washes,  and  the  assertion  was 
made  that,  even  though  the  water  percolating 
through  these  gravels  might  ultimately  reach  the 
river,  yet,  since  this  did  not  flow  in  known  and  well- 
defined  channels,  there  was  no  cause  for  action. 


238  IRRIGATION. 

The  court  decided  that  the  water  travelling  be- 
neath the  surface  was  a  part  of  the  Los  Angeles 
River,  and  that  these  washes,  well  marked  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  indicated  the  presence  of 
well-defined  channels  beneath  the  surface,  these 
indications  being  confirmed  by  testimony  based 
upon  the  depth  of  the  water  in  wells  and  test 
pits.  This  was  further  supported  by  the  analogy  in 
the  case  of  a  pond  filled  with  boulders.  The  San 
Fernando  Valley  might  be  regarded  as  a  natural 
basin  into  which  streams  flowed  from  the  hills,  and 
out  of  which  water  was  discharged  at  the  lower 
end.  The  gradual  filling  of  this  pond  with  debris 
from  the  mountains  would  not  completely  displace 
the  water,  but  it  would  continue  to  travel  beneath 
the  surface  toward  points  of  least  resistance. 

If  the  water  at  the  outlet  is  all  owned  or  appro- 
priated, it  would  not  be  proper  to  permit  diversions 
from  the  pond,  even  though  this  were  filled  with 
gravel  in  such  a  way  as  to  obscure  and  break  up 
the  course  of  flow.  It  was  held  that  "  It  makes  no 
difference  whether  the  onward  flow  is  upon  or 
below  the  surface,  provided  it  is  in  a  known  and 
defined  direction  and  in  known  and  defined  chan- 
nels. The  washes  of  the  Tejungas  and  of  the 
Pacoima  are  clearly  cut  and  well  defined  from 
these  streams  to  the  Los  Angeles  River.  In  sea- 
sons of  heavy  rainfall  these  streams  sometimes  cut 
new  surface  channels  through  the  sand,  but  for  a 
long  time  they  have  maintained  such  channels 


LOS   ANGELES   RIVER.  239 

through  substantially  the  same  territory."  "  It 
is  this  subsurface  flow  that  supports  and  sustains 
the  flow  of  the  Los  Angeles  River,  and  any 
diversion  from  it  ...  amounts  eventually  to  an 
equivalent  abstraction  of  the  same  quantity  directly 
from  the  river." 

The  fact  that  the  testimony  presented  in  this 
case  has  established  the  existence  of  well-defined 
channels  underground  should  not  be  taken  as 
implying  that  similar  channels  can  be  found 
wherever  water  occurs  in  considerable  quantities 
beneath  the  surface.  The  topographic  and  geo- 
logic conditions  must  be  thoroughly  studied  in 
order  to  discriminate  between  conditions  where 
such  channels  do  exist  and  those  where  the  water 
is  merely  seeping  or  progressing  slowly  from  point 
to  point  in  broad,  irregular  deposits  of  gravel.  In 
the  latter  it  is  usually  impossible  to  demonstrate 
that  there  are  any  well-defined  limits,  since  the 
gravels  shade  off  into  sands  or  clay,  each  mass 
of  pervious  material  being  perhaps  isolated  from 
all  others,  or  connected  by  overlapping  layers. 

The  effect  of  a  well,  or  collecting  gallery,  in  such 
a  broad  mass  of  gravel  is  not  like  that  of  similar 
works  in  a  narrow  channel  with  definite  walls  as 
shown  in  Fig.  74,  since  in  the  latter  case  all  of  the 
water  travelling  through  the  narrow  channel  may 
be  within  the  sphere  of  influence  of  the  well  or 
tunnel,  and  may  be  abstracted.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  broad  deposit  the  well  may  receive 


240  IRRIGATION. 

water  only  from  the  immediate  vicinity,  the  plane 
of  saturation  being  depressed  around  the  well, 
forming  a  conical  slope  toward  the  point  from 
which  water  is  pumped.  Only  the  water  within 
a  relatively  small  distance  from  the  well  is  thus 
reached,  and  the  great  body  of  water  percolating 
through  the  broad  gravelly  layer  is  not  affected. 

To  sum  up  and  make  more  clear  the  difference 
which  exists  in  behavior  between  different  classes 
of  underflow,  it  is  desirable  to  present  a  mental 
picture  of  three  conditions  :  First,  an  open  body  of 
water,  such  as  a  small  pond.  Water  pumped  any- 
where from  this  immediately  lowers  the  whole  sur- 
face. The  pond  can  be  filled  with  large  boulders 
and  the  same  effect  takes  place.  In  the  second 
condition  the  spaces  between  the  boulders  are 
filled  with  fine  sand.  Now  water  pumped  from 
one  side  of  the  pond  does  not  immediately  lower 
the  surface,  and,  if  the  material  is  sufficiently  fine, 
a  well  sunk  in  it  may  be  pumped  almost  dry  with- 
out lowering  the  water  around  the  edges  of  the 
pond,  the  slope  of  saturation  extending  from  the 
bottom  of  the  well  steeply  upward  in  all  directions. 
There  is  a  slow  movement  from  all  parts  of  the 
pond  toward  the  well,  but  this  may  be  so  slow  that 
very  little  water  can  be  had.  This  is  the  case  of 
percolation.  The  third  condition  obtains  when 
fine  sand  fills  the  interstices  of  the  boulders  in  the 
pond  except  along  a  narrow  path  or  channel  lead- 
ing across  the  pond  to  the  well.  When  the  pump 


ORDINARY   WELLS.  241 

is  used  the  water  will  flow  with  considerable 
rapidity  along  this  narrow  boulder-filled  path  free 
from  sand.  This  is,  in  effect,  an  underground 
stream  with  a  definite  channel  which  can  be  ascer- 
tained by  test  pits  or  boring.  In  this  channel  the 
behavior  of  the  water  is  decidedly  different  from 
that  of  the  other  water  which  is  slowly  seeping  in 
the  surrounding,  less  pervious  mass. 

Like  most  other  natural  phenomena,  the  condi- 
tions which  distinguish  movement  of  water  by 
seepage  and  by  actual  flow  underground  merge 
into  each  other,  so  that,  while  it  is  possible  to  say 
that  here  is  an  underground  flow  and  there  is 
merely  an  undefined  seepage,  yet  the  determina- 
tion of  the  boundary  line  between  the  two  is  a 
matter  of  judgment.  As  yet  no  rule  has  been  laid 
down,  but  the  experiments  and  the  decision  of  the 
court  in  the  Los  Angeles  case  have  gone  a  long 
way  toward  clearing  up  this  complicated  subject. 

ORDINARY    WELLS. 

Almost  everywhere,  even  in  the  arid  region, 
water  can  be  had  by  digging  wells  at  points  near 
stream  channels  or  along  the  foothills.  Out  in  the 
broad  valleys  it  may  be  necessary  to  go  to  a  depth 
of  from  100  to  300  feet  or  more  before  reaching 
moisture.  Dug  wells  are  the  most  common  means 
of  obtaining  small  amounts  of  water.  Where  the 
supply  is  ample,  various  devices  for  bringing  the 
water  to  the  surface  have  been  employed,  particu- 

K 


242  IRRIGATION. 

larly  windmills,  as  described  on  page  265.  The 
quantity  of  water  is  dependent  upon  certain  geo- 
logic conditions,  the  sands  and  gravel  usually  be- 
ing saturated  and  delivering  water  freely  to  any 
cavity  in  them. 

In  digging  a  well  it  is  the  custom  to  make  the 
hole  only  large  enough  to  permit  one  man  to  work 
in  it.  The  soil  penetrated  must  usually  be  held 
in  place,  masonry  or  brickwork  being  generally 
employed  for  this  purpose,  and  occasionally  wood. 
The  latter,  however,  is  liable  to  decay  rapidly, 
impregnating  the  water  and  allowing  the  ground 
to  cave  in  and  fill  the  well.  The  hole  is  continued 
downward  until  water  is  struck,  and  then  fre- 
quently the  work  ceases  because  of  the  difficulty  of 
digging  further. 

To  obtain  a  sufficient  supply  for  irrigation,  it  is 
very  important  not  to  stop  digging  the  well  when 
the  top  of  the  water-bearing  sands  or  gravel  is 
reached,  but  to  continue  down  into  these.  Some- 
times this  can  be  done  by  driving  perforated  pipe 
in  the  bottom  of  the  well,  thus  penetrating  layers 
of  still  coarser  material  and  adding  greatly  to  the 
capacity  of  the  well.  Sometimes  these  lower 
water  horizons  are  under  greater  pressure  than  the 
gravels  first  struck,  and  water  may  rise  through 
the  pipe  in  the  well  up  to  and  above  the  level  of 
the  bottom. 

It  is  very  important  to  provide  a  free  passage 
for  the  water  from  the  material  in  which  it  occurs. 


WELL   DIGGING.  243 

This  is  sometimes  done  by  driving  galleries  or 
tunnels  from  the  bottom  of  the  well  out  beneath 
the  surface  far  enough  to  intersect  coarser  de- 
posits, such  as  may  have  been  laid  down  in  ancient 
stream  channels.  These  collecting  galleries  serve 
to  bring  small  quantities  of  water  toward  a  centre, 
where  they  can  be  had  by  pumping. 

Work  of  this  character  is  hardly  practicable  for 
ordinary  farm  or  domestic  supply,  but  has  been 
successfully  undertaken  by  towns  and  small  cities 
in  the  West.  With  the  development  of  population 
and  the  increase  of  the  value  of  water,  it  is  proba- 
ble that  investments  of  this  character  may  be 
profitable  for  some  forms  of  irrigation. 

Water  obtained  mainly  for  irrigation  is  occa- 
sionally employed  for  other  purposes,  especially 
for  household  uses  and  for  domestic  animals.  It 
is  thus  often  important  to  protect  it  from  pollution, 
particularly  when  obtained  from  shallow  wells.  It 
has  long  been  recognized  that  the  prevalence  of 
typhoid  and  similar  diseases  in  the  country  can 
often  be  traced  to  well  waters  contaminated  by 
waste  material  from  houses  or  stables.  The  same 
pervious  layers  of  sand  and  gravel  which  drink  in 
the  rain  water  and  deliver  it  to  the  well,  also 
eagerly  receive  the  drainage  from  outhouses  and 
stables,  and  convey  this  also  to  the  lowest  point, 
where  it  may  be  pumped.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  guard  the  purity  of  the 
water  supply,  first  by  locating  wells  at  a  suitable 


244 


IRRIGATION. 


distance  from  possible  points  of  pollution,  and 
next  by  constructing  suitable  lining  or  curbing  to 
prevent  surface  drainage  from  being  washed  in. 
An  efficient  form  of  well  curbing,  shutting  out  sur- 
face drainage,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  75. 
Impure  water 
has  been  known 
to  penetrate 
through  gravel 
to  a  distance  of 
several  hundred 
feet.  In  this 
course  some  of 
the  injurious  or- 
ganic matter  may- 
be destroyed  or 
consumed,  but  it 
is  not  safe  to  de- 
pend upon  this 
action  to  any 
considerable  ex- 
tent. A  simple 
test  can  often 
be  applied  by  putting  brine  or  crude  petroleum  at 
a  point  where  waste  material  is  deposited,  and 
noting  whether  this  affects  the  water  in  the  well. 
For  example,  at  a  country  home  where  typhoid 
fever  occurred,  it  was  believed  that  the  well  water 
was  wholly  undented ;  but  on  pouring  a  barrel  of 


FIG.  75.  —Ordinary  well  curbing  and  windlass. 


WELL   CASING. 


245 


crude  oil  into  a  cesspool  200  feet  or  more  away 
from  the  well,  within  twenty-four  hours  the  water 
in  the  well  had  become  so  impregnated  with  the 
oil  that  it  could  not  be  used.  The  water  from  the 
cesspool  had  undoubtedly  been  filtered  in  its  long 
passage  through  sand  and  gravel,  but  had  probably 
brought  with  it  some  harmful  organic  life. 

When  water  is  obtained  from  deeply  buried 
gravels,  the  casing  or  lining  of  the  well  should  be 
made  perfectly  water-tight  from  the  top  of  the 


FIG.  76.  —  Diagram  illustrating  evils  of  insuffi- 
cient casing. 

water-bearing  beds  to  a  point  slightly  above  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  in  order  to  prevent  contami- 
nation. In  Fig.  76  is  shown  a  somewhat  com- 
mon mistake  in  well-making.  The  owner  first  dug 
a  well  and  secured  a  small  supply  of  surface  water. 
This  not  being  sufficient,  he  put  down  a  tube  or 


246  IRRIGATION. 

casing  to  an  impervious  bed,  and  in  this  drilled  a 
hole  until  he  reached  a  porous,  water-bearing  hori- 
zon. The  water,  being  held  down  by  the  imper- 
vious cover,  rose  in  the  opening  made,  and  filled 
the  bottom  of  the  well.  In  dry  times  a  large  part 
of  the  supply  went  to  saturate  the  unconsolidated 
surface  material  in  which  the  old  well  was  dug, 
and  in  wet  seasons  the  percolating  rain  water  and 
surface  washing  mingled  with  the  purer  deep 
waters.  For  economy  of  water  and  for  preserv- 
ing the  supply  undefiled,  the  casing  should  have 
continued,  as  above  stated,  from  the  water-bearing 
bed  to  the  surface. 

ARTESIAN     WELLS. 

A  great  part  of  the  water  which  occurs  under- 
ground is  found  to  be  percolating  slowly  through 
the  rocks  and  soils.  When  these  are  penetrated 
by  a  well,  the  water  collects  in  this  and  assumes  a 
level  which  represents  the  plane  of  saturation  of 
the  ground.  Occasionally  it  happens  that  the  per- 
vious material,  as  sand  or  gravel,  is  overlain  by  an 
impervious  bed,  as  shown  in  Fig.  76,  and  in  a 
well  dug  through  the  latter  into  the  gravel  the 
water  will  rise  to  a  height  equal  to  the  line  of  satu- 
ration in  the  surrounding  country. 

If  the  beds  of  alternating  clay  and  gravel  are 
inclined,  or  tilted  by  earth  movement,  water  will  fol- 
low down  under  the  clay  or  impervious  shale,  gradu- 
ally acquiring  greater  and  greater  pressure.  The 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXXVIII. 


A.     ARTESIAN   WELL   IN   ARIZONA. 


B.     ARTESIAN   WELL   IN    KANSAS. 


ARTESIAN    WELLS. 


247 


impervious  roof  holds  the  water  down  until  pierced 
by  a  well.  The  term  "  artesian  "  is  applied  to  wells 
in  which  the  water  actually  overflows  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  as  shown  on  PI.  XXXVIII.  There 
is  no  commonly  accepted  designation  to  cover  the 
case  of  wells  in  which  the  water  rises  but  does  not 
overflow,  this  being  characteristic  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  of  nearly  all  artificial  openings  in  the 
ground.  The  term  "  negative  "  artesian  wells  has 
sometimes  been  applied  in  this  connection,  but  in 
its  original  sense  it  was  used  to  cover  the  condi- 
tion where  water  is  held  up  by  an  impervious  layer, 
and  when  the  latter  is  penetrated  the  water  flows 
downward  to  a  lower  level  of  permeable  rock. 
Several  swampy  areas  in  southern  Georgia  have 
thus  been  drained  by  boring  deep  holes  in  the 
lower  portions.  The  surface  water  has  escaped 
down  these  holes  to  unknown  depths. 

The  accompanying  figure  (77)  illustrates  one  of 
the  conditions  of  artesian  structure.  One  side  of  a 
basin  is  represented,  the  porous  beds  of  sand  or 


.  77.  —  Section  of  one  side  of  an  artesian  basin. 


clay  marked  A  outcropping  as  a  rolling  upland; 
below  and  above  this  are  impervious  beds  marked 
R  and  C. 

The  next  figure  illustrates  the  conditions  where 
the  coarse  material  A   has  not  been  curved  in  a 


248  IRRIGATION. 

basin,  but  is  sloping  in  one  direction,  such  as  might 
occur  where  sand  and  gravel  have  been  deposited  on 
a  sloping  sea-coast  and  after  subsidence  have  been 
covered  with  clay.  The  pervious  bed  A  receives 
water  from  rainfall  on  its  exposed  edges.  It  slopes 


FIG.  78.  —  Section  illustrating  the  thinning  out  of  a  porous  water- 
bearing bed,  A,  enclosed  between  impervious  beds,  /^and  C,  thus  furnish- 
ing the  necessary  conditions  for  an  artesian  well,  D. 

gently  inward  and,  lying  on  the  impervious  layer 
B,  is  covered  by  the  clay  or  shale  C.  A  well  at  D 
penetrating  these  will  overflow,  and  if  the  pipe 
were  continued  upward  would  rise  to  the  level  of 
the  line  CFt  this  being  the  plane  of  saturation  of 
the  area  which  receives  the  water  from  rainfall. 

Artesian  conditions  occur  in  nearly  every  state, 
but  they  do  not  extend  over  any  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  country,  except  on  the  Great  Plains  and 
in  the  valley  of  California.  Wherever  they  do 
occur  the  water  has  considerable  value  on  account 
of  the  convenience  incident  to  its  rising  above  the 
surface.  In  some  places,  as  in  the  James  River 
Valley  of  South  Dakota,  the  pressure  is  100  pounds 
or  more  to  the  square  inch,  throwing  the  water  to 
considerable  heights  and  enabling  the  wells  to  be 
used  as  sources  of  power.  For  this  purpose  a 
small  stream  is  directed  against  an  impulse  \vlu-el, 
or  connection  is  made  with  a  reciprocating  water 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XXXIX. 


OUTFIT   FOR   DRILLING  DEEP  ARTESIAN   WELLS- 


POWER   FROM    ARTESIAN    FLOW.  249 

engine,  as  at  Aberdeen,  South  Dakota,  where  the 
sewage  of  the  city  is  pumped  automatically  by 
machinery  of  this  character.  The  city  supply  is 
obtained  from  two  or  three  deep  wells,  the  pressure 
being  sufficient  to  throw  streams  through  fire  hose 
over  the  highest  buildings,  and,  as  just  noted,  the 
surplus  water  is  disposed  of  by  the  force  from  still 
another  well  directed  into  suitable  engines. 

PL  XXXIX  shows  the  derrick  and  the  most 
conspicuous  portion  of  the  machinery  for  drilling 
a  deep  or  artesian  well.  The  skeleton  tower  or 
derrick  is  72  feet  high,  being  sufficiently  tall  to 
support,  from  a  pulley  at  the  top,  the  long  slender 
steel  drilling  tools  which  are  suspended  from  a 
stout  cable.  With  the  arrangement  shown,  wells 
1000  to  3000  feet  in  depth  are  drilled. 

Occasionally  the  water  from  these  deep  wells  is 
saline  or  brackish,  and  thus  has  little  value,  unless 
the  brine  is  so  strong  as  to  be  useful  in  the  manu- 
facture of  salt.  Water  slightly  saline  to  the  taste 
can  be  used  in  irrigation  if  care  is  taken  in  cultiva- 
tion to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  earthy  salts. 

By  the  thorough  study  of  the  geologic  structure 
and  of  the  condition  of  the  rocks  as  regards  per- 
meability and  slope,  it  is  possible  to  prepare  maps 
showing  the  underground  condition  with  reference 
to  flowing  wells,  and  to  outline  the  areas  where 
water  will  rise  to  or  above  the  surface,  and  also  to 
indicate  the  depth  of  the  water-bearing  rocks. 
Such  maps  have  been  prepared  for  a  small  portion 


250  IRRIGATION. 

of  the  country.  By  means  of  them  the  farmer  or 
citizen  can  ascertain  whether  it  is  probable  that 
water  can  be  had,  the  depth,  and  the  character  of 
the  rocks  to  be  penetrated,  thus  making  it  possible 
for  him  to  estimate  the  expense  of  obtaining  water 
in  this  way. 

The  amount  of  water  to  be  had  from  deep  wells 
is  governed  largely  by  the  diameter  of  the  well, 


FlG.  79.  —  Geologic  section  from  the  Black   Hills  east  across  South 
Dakota  (western  half). 

but  more  by  the  structure  and  thickness  of  the 
water-bearing  rocks  and  the  head  or  pressure  under 
which  the  water  occurs.  From  relatively  dense 
rocks  a  slight  head  or  pressure  of  water  will  force 
only  a  feeble  stream,  but  from  thick  layers  of  open 
gravel  or  sand-rock  large  volumes  are  delivered, 
the  quantity  being  limited  by  the  size  of  the  pipe 
of  the  well.  This  is  usually  from  2  to  nearly  6 
inches  in  diameter,  the  ordinary  wells  averaging 


GEOLOGIC    STRUCTURE.  251 

about  4  inches.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed,  however, 
that  by  increasing  the  diameter  a  correspondingly 
large  amount  of  water  will  be  obtained.  It  fre- 
quently occurs  that  a  4-inch  pipe  will  deliver  all 
of  the  water  that  can  reach  this  point,  and  enlarg- 
ing the  diameter  of  the  well  to  4  feet  will  not 
increase  the  flow. 

The  source  of  the  water  coming  to  artesian  wells 
may  be  at  a  distance  of  several  miles  or  several  hun- 
dred miles.  The  large  amount  obtainable  in  eastern 
South  Dakota  probably  has  travelled  underground 
from  the  eastern  front  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  or 
from  the  Black  Hills,  distances  of  from  200  to  400 


FIG.  80.  —  Geologic  section  from  the  Black  Hills  east  across  South 
Dakota  (eastern  half). 

miles.  Figures  79  and  80  give  a  geologic  section 
from  the  Black  Hills  east  across  South  Dakota, 
showing  the  relations  of  the  water-bearing  Dakota 
sandstone  to  the  overlying  impervious  shales  and  to 
the  artesian  wells  in  eastern  South  Dakota  receiv- 
ing their  supply  from  the  sandstone.  A  view  of 
one  of  these  wells  is  shown  in  PL  XL.  This  is 
at  Woonsocket,  South  Dakota,  a  3-inch  stream 
being  thrown  to  a  height  of  97  feet. 


252  IRRIGATION. 

The  area  of  rock  thus  saturated  may  aggregate 
many  hundred  square  miles,  and  the  volume  stored 
underground  is  thus  very  large.  On  the  other 
hand,  an  artesian  basin  may  be  small,  the  rocks 
outcropping  in  the  near  vicinity  of  the  well  and 
receiving  only  a  small  supply  from  the  annual  rain- 
fall. One  or  two  wells  drilled  into  a  small  basin 
do  not  perceptibly  diminish  the  pressure  or  the 
flow ;  but  as  the  number  is  increased  the  stored 
water  is  drawn  upon  more  rapidly  than  it  can  be 
replenished,  and  the  pressure  greatly  diminishes, 
until  the  wells  no  longer  flow  unless  some  of  them 
are  stopped.  A  condition  of  this  kind  has  occurred 
in  the  artesian  basin  in  the  vicinity  of  Denver, 
Colorado.  All  of  the  wells  within  or  near  the  city 
have  ceased  flowing,  and  water  is  obtained  from 
them  by  pumping.  Out  in  the  country,  in  a  more 
remote  portion  of  the  basin,  some  of  the  wells  still 
flow.  This  general  diminution  of  pressure  has  not 
been  noticed  in  the  larger  artesian  basins,  such  as 
those  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  of  California,  the 
Moxee  Valley  of  Washington,  the  James  River 
Valley  of  South  Dakota,  and  the  San  Luis  Valley 
of  Colorado. 

Some  artesian  wells  have  decreased  or  stopped 
flowing,  not  from  lack  of  water,  but  because  of 
mechanical  defects  in  their  construction.  Fine 
sand  has  accumulated,  stopping  up  the  well,  or 
the  tubing  or  casing  has  rusted  away,  permitting 
the  water  to  escape  into  pervious  rocks  below 


WELL  AT  WOONSOCKET,  SOUTH  DAKOTA,  THROWING  A  3-INCH 
STREAM  TO  A  HEIGHT  OF  97   FEET. 


INJURY   TO   ARTESIAN   WELLS.  253 

ground.  In  some  localities  where  wells  were 
abandoned  because  the  water  did  not  rise  to  the 
surface  or  the  flow  was  unsatisfactory  the  casings 
of  the  wells  have  been  drawn  for  use  elsewhere. 
The  water  has  continued  to  rise  from  the  bottom 
of  the  well  and  to  escape  into  the  higher  porous 
strata,  permitting  a  continual  outflow  from  the 
artesian  water-bearing  rocks.  Several  artesian 
basins  have  been  greatly  weakened  or  even 
destroyed  by  such  treatment.  In  the  construc- 
tion of  artesian  wells  it  is  highly  important  to 
provide  suitable  casing  to  prevent  the  wells  leaking 
into  the  dry  rocks,  and,  in  short,  every  precaution 
should  be  taken  to  prevent  waste  of  water  or 
destruction  of  other  wells  through  careless  man- 
agement of  one  or  two. 

The  amount  of  water  delivered  by  an  artesian 
well  varies  from  a  few  gallons  a  minute  to  as  high 
as  5  cubic  feet  per  second  or  even  more.  Wells 
flowing  i  cubic  foot  per  second  have  great  value 
in  irrigation,  as  by  storing  this  water  100  or  160 
acres  can  be  watered.  The  advantages  of  water 
obtained  in  this  way  are  very  great,  as  the  owner 
of  the  well  is  independent  and  can  use  his  water 
when  and  where  he  wishes,  while  the  irrigator  de- 
pending upon  a  ditch  system  cannot.  Artesian 
well  water  is  also  free  from  seeds  of  weeds  and  is 
usually  somewhat  warmer  than  the  ground ;  thus 
it  does  not  chill  the  plants,  as  is  sometimes  the 
case  with  water  from  mountain  streams. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

PUMPING   WATER. 

IT  has  previously  been  stated  that  the  greater 
portion  of  water  used  in  irrigation  is  diverted  by 
gravity  from  flowing  streams.  While  this  is  true 
as  regards  bulk  of  water,  as  regards  value  it  may 
be  said  that  some  of  the  most  important  sources 
of  supply  are  utilized  through  pumping.  In  an- 
cient times,  especially  in  Egypt  and  India,  where 
labor  had  little  value  and  the  conditions  for  divert- 


FIG.  81.  —  The  doon,  or  tilting  trough. 

ing  water  by  gravity  were  not  favorable,  pumping 
by  hand  or  by  animal  power  was  largely  practised. 

254 


HAND   PUMPING. 


255 


The  accompanying  illustration  shows  a  crude  de- 
vice, a  tilting  trough  known  as  a  doon.  This  is 
pivoted  near  its  centre,  and  is  counterbalanced  by 
rock  in  such  way  that  one  end  of  the  doon  can 
be  pressed  into  the  water,  the  weight  of  the  rock 
then  lifting  this  end,  elevating  it  sufficiently  to 
throw  the  water  into  a  ditch. 


PUMPING    BY    HAND    OR    ANIMAL    POWER. 

Another  view  (Fig.  82)  is  of  a  series  of  well- 
sweeps,  or  shadoofs,  as  still  used  in  Egypt,  this 


7 

FIG.  82. —  Series  of  shadoofs  as  used  in  Egypt. 


device  being  also  employed  in  modified  forms  in 
many  countries.     By  means  of  it  water  is  raised 


256 


IRRIGATION. 


from  5  to  10  feet  or  more.  As  shown  in  the  view, 
a  series  of  shadoofs  are  arranged,  to  avoid  greater 
lifts,  the  water  being  raised  first  to  one  level  and 
then  to  the  next,  and  so  on  until  the  top  of  the 
bank  is  reached.  With  these  well-sweeps  the 
workman  uses  his  weight  to  depress  the  bucket 
into  the  water,  whence  it  is  lifted  largely  by  the 
counterweight,  the  bucket  being  swung  over  and 
emptied,  when  it  reaches  the  proper  level. 


FIG.  83.  — A  mot,  operated  by  oxen. 

Animal  power  is  used  in  many  forms,  either  in 
directly  pulling  up  a  bucket  or  skin  full  of  water, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  83,  or  in  operating  some  form  of 
pump.  The  device  shown  is  known  as  a  mot,  and 
consists  of  a  rope  passing  over  a  pulley  and  down 
into  a  well,  to  the  lower  end  there  being  attached 
a  receptacle  for  the  water.  The  animals,  walking 
away  from  the  well,  usually  down  an  incline,  draw 


PUMPING   BY   ANIMALS.  257 

the  bucket  to  the  top,  where  it  is  emptied.  The 
animals  then  walk  backward  to  the  well  and  repeat 
the  operation. 

In  modern  times  these  devices  have  been  im- 
proved upon,  although  some  of  them  are  still 
utilized  in  crude  form  by  pioneers  in  the  arid 
region.  The  well-sweep  has  in  general  been  re- 
placed by  the  windlass,  which  raises  water  in  a 


FIG.  84.  —  Horse-power  for  lifting  water. 

bucket,  as  shown  in  Fig.  75.  With  ordinary  farm 
wells  of  this  kind  irrigation  is  impracticable,  other 
than  the  watering  of  a  few  trees  or  plats  of  vege- 
tables ;  but  the  beginnings  of  irrigation  on  many  a 
farm  in  the  subhumid  region  may  be  traced  to 
successful  experiments  with  water  raised  in  this 
laborious  manner. 


258 


IRRIGATION. 


The  next  step  in  pumping  water  under  pioneer 
conditions  has  frequently  been  the  utilization 
of  horse-power.  The  accompanying  figure  (84) 
shows  a  simple  device,  by  which  a  horse  walk- 
ing in  a  circle  causes  a  series  of  buckets  to  be 
lifted  from  the  well,  drawing  up  water  sufficient 
for  several  acres.  The  possibility  of  irrigation  in 
this  way  is  limited  largely  by  the  depth  to  water 
and  the  number  of  animals  available. 

USE    OF    WATER-WHEELS. 

The  force  of  flowing  water  has  been  frequently 
employed  to  bring  water  up  to  the  level  of  the 
irrigable  land.  The  bucket  wheel  has  been  util- 
ized from  the  earliest  historical  times  to  the  pres- 


FlG.  85.  —  Current  wheel  lifting  water. 


WATER-WHEELS.  259 

ent.  This  consists  of  a  paddle-wheel  with  a  series 
of  buckets  arranged  around  the  rim  in  such  form 
that  when  the  wheel  revolves  by  the  force  of  the 
current,  the  buckets  are  filled,  raised  to  the  top, 
and  emptied  into  a  trough,  which  conducts  the 
water  into  the  irrigating  ditches.  Wheels  of  this 
kind  are  to  be  seen  along  most  of  the  swift-flowing 
rivers  of  the  West,  as  shown  in  PL  XLI,  some  of 
them  being  as  much  as  30  feet  in  diameter. 

Where  there  is  sufficient  fall  in  a  stream  to 
develop  water-power,  this  can  be  used  by  means 
of  various  standard  forms  of  water-wheels,  such 
as  the  turbine,  these  in  turn  operating  pumping 
engines.  Such  devices  are  employed  occasionally 
to  obviate  the  necessity  of  building  expensive  lines 
of  canal,  the  power  of  a  stream  being  used  to 
pump  the  water  to  the  top  of  a  high  bank,  which 
otherwise  could  be  surmounted  only  by  many 
miles  of  canal,  with  costly  flumes  and  tunnels. 

With  small  amounts  of  water  descending  pre- 
cipitously and  giving  a  head  of  several  hundred 
feet,  various  forms  of  impulse  water-wheel,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  86,  have  been  employed.  This 
device  develops  great  power  for  a  small  amount 
of  water,  and  can  be  used  to  actuate  various  forms 
of  pump  to  bring  water,  either  from  underground  or 
from  surface  sources,  up  to  the  land  which  it  is 
desired  to  moisten. 

The  increase  of  irrigated  areas  in  many  parts  of 
the  United  States  is  being  brought  about  by  the 


260  IRRIGATION. 

facilities  for  pumping  afforded  by  the  development 
of  water-powers  and  the  transmission  of  the  energy 
by  electrical  means.  The  regulation  of  the  stream 
by  storage  reservoirs  for  the  purpose  of  supplying 
water  to  the  fields  frequently  creates  conditions 
favorable  for  producing  power  for  operating  water- 


FlG.  86.  —  Impulse  water-wheel. 

wheels  of  one  kind  or  another.  These  points  are, 
however,  usually  remote  from  centres  of  popula- 
tion and  possible  markets  for  the  power,  and  the 
works  built  here  would  be  valueless  were  it  not  for 
electrical  transmission.  There  is  an  awakening  of 
agricultural  and  industrial  activity  following  each 
improvement  in  electrical  transmission. 

Up  to  about  1890  there  was  a  rapid  decrease  in 
the  relative  importance  of  water-powers  in  the 
United  States ;  but  this  has  been  checked  by  the 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XLI. 


CURRENT  WHEELS   LIFTING  WATER. 


IMPULSE   WATER-WHEEL.  261 

practical  application  of  methods  of  conveying  the 
power  by  wire,  some  of  these  being  on  a  large 
scale.  In  this  respect  the  West  has  led  in  certain 
features,  largely  because  of  the  great  expense  of 
fuel  there  and  the  fact  that  development  has  not 
been  hampered  by  vested  rights  to  the  use  of  the 
rivers.  Throughout  the  East,  in  New  England 
especially,  water-powers  have  been  utilized  to  a 
notable  extent,  and  the  vested  rights  which  have 
resulted  have  served  to  retard  changes  or  improve- 
ments. The  costly  structures  and  machinery  al- 
ready erected  have  not  been  adaptable  to  new 
requirements,  and  often  it  has  been  found  cheaper 
to  abandon  important  powers  rather  than  incur  the 
expense  of  extinguishing  various  claims  and  re- 
modelling existing  factories. 

The  advantages  of  water-power  over  other 
sources  of  energy  are,  however,  so  decided  that  it 
is  apparent  that,  with  improved  methods  of  opera- 
tion, important  falls  or  rapids  will  soon  be  utilized. 
As  a  rule  it  is  cheaper  than  steam-power,  for  the 
water  costs  nothing  and  the  expense  of  mainten- 
ance of  hydraulic  machinery  and  of  superinten- 
dence is  small.  The  annual  cost  of  power  consists 
almost  entirely  of  interest  charges  on  the  original 
investment. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  many  large  rivers 
and  innumerable  small  creeks  descending  with 
rapid  fall  from  the  mountains  in  regions  where 
fuel  is  expensive.  There  water-power  must  always 


262  IRRIGATION. 

have  great  importance  in  industrial  development. 
By  combining  the  power  transmitted  from  a  num- 
ber of  small  streams  distributed  over  one  or  more 
counties,  it  is  possible  to  bring  together  at  the  sea- 
board or  at  centres  of  population  an  amount  of 
power  comparable  to  that  had  from  some  of  the 
great  rivers. 

Jn  past  decades  water-power  has  been  employed 
only  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  a  natural 
fall ;  and  where  distributed  to  different  manufactur- 
ing establishments,  this  has  been  rendered  possible 
by  dividing  the  water  and  allowing  it  to  flow  to 
the  various  water-wheels  located  in  the  factory 
buildings.  This  has  necessitated  the  crowding  of 
the  buildings  together,  or  a  large  expenditure  for 
conveying  the  water  to  a  considerable  distance. 
In  New  England  the  permanent  works  for  procur- 
ing and  dividing  this  water  have  been  among 
the  most  expensive  in  the  world,  and  corporations 
have  been  formed  for  the  purpose  of  controlling  a 
large  river  and  furnishing  the  water  to  manufac- 
turing establishments,  instead  of  generating  power 
and  then  selling  it. 

An  example  of  this  system  of  dividing  water  is 
on  the  Merrimac  River  at  Lowell  and  Lawrence, 
Massachusetts.  At  the  latter  place  the  Essex 
Company  has  built  an  expensive  masonry  dam, 
giving  a  fall  of  28  feet  and  obtaining  10,000  horse- 
power during  working  hours.  This  dam  is  900 
feet  long  and  32  feet  in  height,  the  cost  being  esti- 


WATER-POWER.  263 

mated  as  $250,000.  From  each  end  of  this  canals 
extend  down-stream  and  mills  are  located  along 
these  canals  between  them  and  the  river.  The 
canal  on  the  north  side  is  a  trifle  over  a  mile  in 
length  and  100  feet  in  width  at  the  upper  end,  and 
cost  approximately  the  same  amount  as  the  dam. 
The  canal  on  the  south  side  is  about  2000  feet  long 
and  60  feet  wide,  and  cost  about  $150,000.  Water 
is  leased  or  sold  to  the  mills  at  a  certain  fixed  rate, 
the  Essex  Company  maintaining  the  dam  and 
canals  and  delivering  the  water  at  the  penstocks 
of  the  mills,  from  which  it  flows  through  the 
wheels  and  is  discharged  back  into  the  river.  The 
condition  here  is  typical  of  that  at  many  other 
points  in  New  England,  and  illustrates  the  form  of 
development  where  water  is  distributed  to  many 
manufacturing  establishments. 

In  marked  contrast  to  the  above  conditions  are 
those  growing  out  of  the  ability  to  divide  the 
power  and  transmit  it  electrically  to  places  distant 
100  miles  or  more.  Here  it  is  no  longer  necessary 
to  crowd  the  manuf  acturingestablishments  together, 
but  they  may  be  scattered  widely  over  the  country, 
at  points  where  material  and  labor  can  be  had  to 
best  advantage.  The  power  of  the  falling  water 
can  be  transformed  into  electrical  energy  in  a  single 
establishment,  from  which  wires  radiate  in  all 
directions  ;  or  if  the  water-power  is  diffused  in  a 
number  of  small  streams,  each  of  little  importance 
alone,  several  plants  can  be  erected  and  the  power 


264  IRRIGATION. 

concentrated  by  lines  leading  to  one  large  factory. 
This  facility  for  transmitting  power  has  revolution- 
ized many  industries,  and  attention  is  now  given  to 
small  water-powers  which  in  times  past  have  been 
neglected  or  abandoned  as  useless. 

A  third  step  in  progress  is  made  where  many 
sources  of  power  are  brought  together  into  one 
system,  and  this  branches  out  to  localities  where 
power  is  needed.  Each  water-power  becomes  a 
feeder  to  a  main  trunk  line,  and  this  line  divides 
to  numerous  establishments.  Such  is  the  condition 
in  Southern  California,  where  a  number  of  generat- 
ing stations  have  been  erected  in  various  canyons, 
and  the  electric  wires,  converging  toward  Los 
Angeles,  make  possible  numerous  industries  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  city  and  drive  many  small 
irrigating  pumps.  The  arrangement  is  carried  to 
an  extent  such  that  a  manufacturing  establishment, 
like  a  cement  mill,  may  take  power  during  the  day- 
time, when  it  is  in  least  demand  for  light,  and  later 
return  an  equivalent  by  turning  in  the  energy 
developed  by  its  steam  engines. 

All  of  these  economies  resulting  from  the 
utilization  of  forces  otherwise  lost  have  interest  in 
a  consideration  of  the  extent  to  which  the  arid 
lands  can  be  redeemed  by  irrigation,  as  they  are 
part  of  the  general  system  of  turning  to  beneficial 
use  the  resources  now  going  to  waste.  Cheap 
power  means  ability  to  pump  water,  and  water 
supply  in  turn  makes  possible  an  extension  of 


PUMPING   BY   WIND   POWER.  265 

irrigation,    and   this    is  the  principal  step  toward 
more  homes  and  a  settled  population. 

WINDMILLS. 

The  most  important  and  widely  distributed  source 
of  power  for  pumping  water  is  wind.  Over  the 
broad  valleys  and  plains  of  the  arid  region  the  wind 
blows  without  ceasing  for  days  and  weeks,  carry- 
ing away  the  dry  leaves,  and  even  at  times  sweep- 
ing up  the  loose  soil.  In  many  localities  there  are, 
at  depths  of  20  to  50  feet  or  more  beneath  the  sur- 
face, pervious  beds  of  sand  or  gravel  filled  with 
waters  by  the  infiltration  of  rainfall  or  by  percola- 
tion from  stream  channels. 

It  is  a  comparatively  simple  and  inexpensive 
operation  to  sink  a  well  into  this  water  and  erect 
a  windmill,  attaching  this  to  a  suitable  pump.  The 
machinery,  once  provided,  is  operated  day  and  night 
by  the  ever  present  wind,  bringing  to  the  surface  a 
small  but  continuous  supply  of  water.  This  small 
stream,  if  turned  out  on  the  soil,  would  flow  a  short 
distance  and  then  disappear  into  the  thirsty  ground, 
so  that  irrigation  directly  from  a  windmill  is  usually 
impracticable. 

To  overcome  this  difficulty  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  provide  small  storage  reservoirs  or 
tanks,  built  of  earth,  wood,  or  iron,  to  hold  the 
water  until  it  has  accumulated  to  a  volume  suffi- 
cient to  permit  a  stream  of  considerable  size  being 
taken  out  for  irrigation.  Such  a  stream  flowing 


266  IRRIGATION. 

rapidly  over  the  surface  will  extend  to  a  distance 
and  cover  an  area  which  would  seem  impossible 
with  the  small  flow  delivered  by  the  pump. 

The  windmills  employed  in  irrigation  are  of  all 
kinds,  from  the  highest  type  of  the  machinist's 
art  down  to  the  crude  home-made  devices.  The 
latter  are  not  to  be  despised,  as  many  of  them  are 
highly  effective,  and  at  least  they  have  enabled 
settlers  to  procure  a  small  amount  of  water  and 
to  obtain  a  foothold  upon  the  soil,  by  which  ulti- 
mately they  may  be  able  to  obtain  funds  to  pro- 
cure better  implements. 

The  accompanying  PL  XLII  shows  a  number 
of  these  home-made  devices,  some  of  them  being 
in  the  form  of  turbine  wheels,  and  others,  known 
as  the  "Jumbo,"  consisting  of  horizontal  paddle- 
wheels  so  arranged  that  the  wind  sweeping  over 
the  top  of  the  structure  strikes  the  exposed  sails 
and  causes  the  wheel  to  revolve.  On  each  end  of 
the  axis  of  this  wheel  are  attached  the  pump  rods, 
which  move  up  and  down  as  the  wheel  revolves. 

Such  home-made  mills  are,  of  course,  of  low 
efficiency  as  regards  the  proportion  of  power 
utilized.  But  since  the  force  of  the  wind  is  prac- 
tically limitless,  the  mechanical  efficiency  of  the 
device  is  of  little  consequence,  provided  it  does 
the  work  required.  The  material  for  these  mills 
costs  from  $5  to  $20.  They  are  easily  repaired 
and  will  serve  for  many  years.  Such  machines 
are,  of  course,  not  comparable,  as  far  as  workman- 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XLII. 


)F  HOME-MADE  WINDMILLS. 


B.     BATTLE-AXE  TYPE  OF  HOME-MADE  WINDMILLS. 


HOME-MADE   WINDMILLS.  267 

ship  is  concerned,  with  those  made  by  manufac- 
turers of  implements ;  but  the  cheapness  of  the 
device  has  enabled  many  a  settler,  discouraged  in 
the  attempt  to  farm  without  irrigation,  to  obtain  a 
water  supply  and  successfully  raise  a  vegetable 
garden  sufficient  to  support  his  family,  and  also 
to  put  up  a  small  amount  of  forage  for  his  cattle. 

In  building  these  mills  pieces  of  old  mowing 
machines  or  reapers  have  been  used  for  axles, 
bearings,  and  connections.  The  sails  have  been 
made  of  pieces  of  dry-goods  boxes  and  old  lumber 
around  the  farm,  and  the  whole  machinery  stiff- 
ened and  held  in  place  by  bale  wire  or  other  waste 
material  found  in  quantities  around  the  houses  of 
men  who  have  attempted  to  make  a  living  upon 
the  plains.  Thousands  of  settlers  have  pushed 
westward  from  the  humid  into  the  subhumid  por- 
tions bordering  the  arid  region,  and  in  years  of 
abundant  rainfall  have  been  able  to  raise  one  or 
two  crops.  With  the  changing  cycles  of  moisture, 
these  regions  becoming  dry,  the  pioneers  have  lost 
their  crops  year  after  year,  and  have  been  com- 
pelled by  starvation  either  to  leave  the  country  or 
to  change  their  methods  of  farming.  Under  these 
circumstances,  discouraged,  without  capital,  some 
of  the  more  ingenious  and  persistent  settlers  have 
been  able  to  dig  wells,  build  windmills,  and  irrigate 
a  small  patch  of  ground,  and,  gradually  adapting 
their  methods  to  the  climate,  have  improved  upon 
their  conditions  and  made  comfortable  and  perma- 


268 


IRRIGATION. 


nent  homes.  The  crude  windmill  has  then  given 
way  to  the  shop-made  mill,  PL  XLIII,  with  its 
neater  appearance  and  greater  efficiency.  The 
contrasting  conditions  have  been  illustrated  on 
Pis.  I,  II,  and  III. 

The  accompanying  figure  (87)  shows  two  of 
these  mills  placed  on  opposite  sides  of  a  small 
earth  reservoir,  into  which  water  is  being  pumped 


FIG.  87.  —  \V 


pumping  into  earth  reservoir. 


for  irrigation.  Sometimes  as  many  as  half  a  dozen 
mills  are  placed  around  a  tank  of  this  kind,  a 
number  of  small  mills  being  found  better  than 
one  or  two  large  ones.  When  the  diameter  of 
the  wheel  is  increased  much  above  10  or  12  feet, 
the  strength  is  considerably  diminished  and  liabil- 
ity to  injury  during  storm  is  greatly  increased. 
Small,  rapid-running  mills,  8  to  12  feet  in  diameter, 
have,  therefore,  been  found  most  economical.  If  one 
is  injured,  the  others  will  usually  continue  pumping. 


LIMITATIONS    OF   WINDMILLS.  269 

The  disadvantage  of  windmills,  as  a  class,  is  that 
most  of  them  are  constructed  to  operate  only  in 
moderate  winds.  The  very  lightest  breezes  often 
pass  by  without  starting  the  wheel  in  motion.  As 
the  strength  of  the  wind  increases,  the  wheel 
begins  to  revolve,  reaching  greater  and  greater 
efficiency  until  the  velocity  is  about  8  or  10  miles 
an  hour.  At  greater  speeds  the  mills  are  usually 
so  constructed  that  they  begin  to  turn  out  of  the 
wind  in  order  to  protect  themselves,  and  thus  the 
efficiency  begins  to  drop  off  rapidly  as  the  wind 
becomes  more  and  more  powerful.  When  it 
approaches  a  gale  the  mill  stops  completely,  and 
thus,  at  the  time  when  with  sufficiently  strong 
construction  the  greatest  amount  of  water  could 
be  pumped,  the  machine  is  standing  idle. 

One  of  the  important  inventions  yet  to  be  made 
is  a  simple,  strong  windmill  which  will  continue 
in  operation  throughout  a  heavy  wind.  Many 
mechanicians  have  tried  their  hand  at  something 
of  this  kind,  but  have  not  yet  succeeded  in  pro- 
ducing a  commercial  article.  The  suggestion  has 
been  made  that  pumping  by  wind  may  reach  its 
highest  efficiency  through  the  use  of  compressed 
air,  the  windmill  operating  some  form  of  simple 
air  compressor,  from  which  a  pipe  will  lead  down 
into  a  well,  and  through  it  water  be  forced  out  by 
means  of  what  is  known  as  an  air  lift.  If  such  a 
device  is  practicable  the  windmills  can  be  located 
on  the  highest  point  of  the  farm,  and  the  com- 


2/0  IRRIGATION. 

pressed    air   be   carried  down   to  the    lower-lying 
wells. 

PUMPING    BY    STEAM    AND    GASOLENE. 

Where  the  conditions  are  favorable,  water  is 
raised  for  irrigation  by  ordinary  steam  pumps  or 
by  machinery  actuated  by  gas,  gasolene,  or  hot-air 
engines.  In  the  vicinity  of  cities  and  towns  hav- 
ing waterworks,  lawns  and  small  gardens  are  thus 
irrigated  by  hydrant  water,  the  area  of  each  being 
small,  but  the  aggregate  amounting  to  many  tho.u- 
sand  acres. 

Steam  pumps  have  been  installed  for  irrigation 
by  some  market  gardeners  and  by  farmers  who 
have  engines  for  threshing  and  other  farm  uses. 
Various  forms  of  centrifugal  pumps  are  generally 
employed,  these  being  connected  by  means  of 
a  belt  to  the  ordinary  engines.  Water  is  thus 
raised  usually  not  to  exceed  20  feet  in  height. 

Gasolene  engines  are  being  largely  employed 
where  coal  and  wood  for  fuel  are  expensive,  and 
where  the  depth  to  water  is  not  very  great,  say 
from  15  to  30  feet.  The  forms  of  machinery  are 
very  diverse,  and  there  are  on  the  market  a  con- 
siderable number  of  engines,  pumps,  and  mechan- 
ical devices,  many  of  which  have  been  successfully 
used,  while  others  are  still  in  experimental  stages. 

The  cost  of  pumping  water  by  engines  driven 
by  steam,  or  by  similar  machinery,  differs  with  the 
cost  of  fuel,  the  amount  of  labor  involved,  and  the 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XLIII. 


WINDMILL   PUMPING   INTO  SOD-LINED   RESERVOIR. 


STEAM   AND   GASOLINE   PUMPS. 


depreciation  of  the  plant.  It  is,  as  a  rule,  con- 
siderably higher  than  the  amount  yearly  paid  for 
the  maintenance  of  canals  and  ditches  in  the  arid 
region,  or  the  amount  paid  annually  to  a  canal 
company  for  delivering  water.  It  is  rarely  below 
$2  per  acre  irrigated,  and,  from  this  as  a  minimum, 
may  rise  to  $5  or  even  $10  an  acre.  This  method 
of  obtaining  water  will  not  be  profitably  employed 
for  general  crops,  except  those,  such  as  rice,  where 
the  conditions  are  such  that  the  industry  is  impos- 
sible without  resorting  to  this  means  of  obtaining 
water. 

In  humid  and  subhumid  regions  pumping  plants 
are  at  present  more  widely  used  than  canals  taking 
water  from  rivers,  because  they  can  be  erected  by 
an  individual  upon  his  own  land  without  any  com- 
plications as  regards  riparian  rights  or  control  of 
the  waters.  Being  compact  and  under  cover,  the 
machinery  can  be  kept  from  deterioration  and  in 
readiness  for  use  in  times  of  emergency,  supple- 
menting the  deficient  rainfall.  Where  windmills 
have  been  utilized  and  it  has  been  found  by  experi- 
ence that  the  wind  is  unreliable,  the  irrigators  fre- 
quently resort  to  gasolene  engines  to  keep  the 
pumps  running  during  calm  days. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  IRRIGATION. 

THE  advantages  of  irrigation  and  the  benefits 
resulting  are  to  be  inferred  from  what  has  been 
given  in  the  preceding  pages.  In  brief,  it  may  be 
said  that  these  consist  in  the  ability  to  supply 
water  at  the  right  time  and  in  proper  quantities  to 
the  growing  plants,  resulting  in  the  largest  and 
best  development  of  these  and  facilitating  a  close 
tilling  of  the  soil,  a  rapid  succession  of  crops 
where  the  temperature  is  favorable,  intensive  farm- 
ing, and  a  dense  rural  population,  with  all  of  the 
accompanying  benefits  of  rapid  communication, 
modern  improvements,  and  social  intercourse.  As 
one  of  the  advantages  also  may  be  enumerated  the 
ability  to  put  to  use,  by  sewage  irrigation,  the  waste 
matter  from  organic  life,  bringing  together  and 
making  of  value  the  sandy  places  and  the  sub- 
stances which  otherwise  become  nuisances. 

There  is  no  gain  without  some  small  loss,  and  it 
must  be  recognized  that  there  are  some  disadvan- 
tages connected  with  irrigation.  Labor  and  vigi- 
lance are  necessitated  in  applying  water  to  the 
fields.  The  proper  supply  may  not  be  available 

272 


DISADVANTAGES.  273 

when  needed.  Marshy  conditions  may  result  from 
excessive  use  of  water  by  neighbors  or  from  una- 
voidable causes,  and,  worse  than  all,  the  artificial 
application  of  water  to  the  soil  may  bring  to  the 
surface  such  a  quantity  of  earthy  salts,  known  as 
alkali,  that  the  land,  otherwise  fertile,  is  ruined. 
In  humid  climates  also,  after  a  heavy  or  clayey 
soil  has  been  irrigated,  a  sudden  shower  may  occur, 
drenching  the  fields  and  injuring  the  crops.  Under 
proper  conditions,  however,  such  as  those  realized 
in  parts  of  the  country  where  water  is  intelligently 
applied  to  the  soil  and  the  tilling  is  thoroughly 
done,  the  most  remunerative  and  beneficial  returns 
are  had  from  the  irrigated  lands. 

If,  for  any  cause,  the  proper  amount  of  water 
cannot  be  had  and  applied  as  needed,  irrigation 
fails  of  being  complete,  and  disasters  ensue  detri- 
mental to  the  further  spread  of  this  method  of 
agriculture.  Incomplete  irrigation,  like  an  unfin- 
ished building  or  any  other  project  stopped  half- 
way, is  always  discouraging.  In  so  far,  therefore, 
as  irrigation  may  be  chronically  liable  to  lack  of 
completeness  through  a  deficient  water  supply,  it 
becomes  disappointing. 

A  serious  source  of  annoyance  is  that  occasion- 
ally experienced  by  scarcity  of  water.  While 
many  of  the  irrigators  enjoy  a  perennially  abun- 
dant supply,  there  are  others  in  nearly  every  com- 
munity whose  farming  operations  are  rendered 
precarious  because  in  one  year  or  another  they 


274  IRRIGATION. 

suffer  from  a  shortage  of  water.  The  disaster 
resulting  depends  largely  upon  the  character  of 
the  crops  planted  ;  some  kinds  may  be  able  to  sur- 
vive the  drought  and  yield  a  small  return,  while 
others  may  be  a  total  loss. 

The  higher  the  development  of  an  industry,  the 
greater  the  opportunities  for  failure  and  the  wider 
becomes  the  effect  of  disaster.  Irrigation  may  be 
considered  as  the  highest  type  of  agriculture,  and, 
under  favorable  circumstances,  largest  results  may 
be  expected ;  but,  as  in  every  other  highly  special- 
ized industry,  not  every  man  makes  a  success. 

If  one  hundred  men  should  be  placed  upon  new 
land  in  a  humid  climate,  and  the  same  number  on 
irrigated  farms  in  the  arid  region,  it  is  probable 
that  at  the  end  of  five  years  there  would  be  a 
greater  proportion  of  successful  farmers  among 
those  on  the  land  depending  upon  rainfall.  As 
time  went  on,  however,  and  the  art  of  irrigation 
became  better  understood,  the  returns  from  the 
irrigated  lands  would  far  outstrip  those  from  the 
humid.  With  ability  to  apply  water  to  the  dry 
fields  at  the  right  time,  the  regularity  of  the  crop 
is  insured,  and  farming  operations  can  be  con- 
ducted with  a  certainty  unknown  in  humid  climates. 

Small  farms  are  characteristic  of  successful  irri- 
gation development.  Throughout  Utah,  for  exam- 
ple, the  average  size  of  an  irrigated  area  is  less 
than  thirty  acres.  By  means  of  this,  a  family  is 
supported  in  comfort  and  thi-iv  is  a  gradual  in- 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XLIV. 


ADVANTAGES.  275 

crease  in  wealth.  The  advantages  of  ownership 
in  small  tracts  can  be  seen  at  a  glance  in  the  well- 
tilled  fields  and  the  general  appearance  of  subur- 
ban activity  and  prosperity.  There  is  none  of  the 
loneliness  and  isolation,  so  depressing  where 
farmers'  families  live  a  mile  from  one  another  and 
rarely  see  any  one  except  a  few  acquaintances  and 
have  little  means  of  keeping  in  touch  with  the 
activities  of  the  outside  world.  The  cultivation  of 
small  tracts  also  necessitates  more  or  less  diversi- 
fied farming :  fruit  trees  and  vines  are  raised,  and 
when  one  crop  is  removed  another  may  be  planted 
if  the  season  is  not  too  severe.  A  few  cattle  and 
sheep  are  kept  upon  the  neighboring  open  range, 
and  there  is  continued  occupation  throughout  the 
year  for  all  able-bodied  members  of  the  family  in 
caring  for  the  fruits,  the  gardens,  or  the  animals. 
This  is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  great  wheat  farms, 
where  the  work  is  concentrated  during  a  few 
months  and  the  prosperity  of  the  family  is  de- 
pendent upon  a  single  crop.  There  is  developed 
in  the  irrigated  regions  a  better  class  of  citizens, 
with  broader  experience  and  wider  interests. 

SEWAGE    IRRIGATION. 

Irrigation  affords  not  only  a  method  of  stimulat- 
ing plant  development,  but  it  has  been  found  to  be 
advantageous  in  both  humid  and  arid  climates  in 
furnishing  a  means  of  disposal  of  various  waste 
products  resulting  from  human  and  animal  activi- 


2/6  IRRIGATION. 

ties,  making  these  of  use  instead  of  allowing  them 
to  become  sources  of  annoyance.  One  of  the 
most  convenient  ways  of  getting  rid  of  deleterious 
substances  has  been  to  throw  them  into  running 
water,  or  to  use  flowing  water  as  a  means  of  con- 
venience for  taking  away  organic  matter  which 
otherwise,  by  accumulation  and  decay,  would  be 
injurious  to  health.  From  the  earliest  times  creeks 
and  rivers  have  been  regarded  as  the  natural 
means  of  deliverance  from  nuisances.  With  the 
introduction  of  waterworks  and  systems  of  sewer- 
age, we  have,  in  effect,  diverted  the  streams  to  our 
doors  and  made  them  carry  away  our  refuse. 

At  the  same  time  these  streams,  or  portions  of 
them,  serve  as  sources  of  water  supply,  and  it  not 
infrequently  happens  that  a  river  which  is  in  effect 
an  open  sewer  for  a  considerable  population  is 
used  at  lower  points  to  furnish  drinking  water. 
This  condition,  when  plainly  stated,  is  highly 
repugnant,  but  nevertheless  exists  throughout  the 
United  States.  The  city  of  Washington,  for  exam- 
ple, has  for  many  years  taken  water  directly  from 
the  Potomac  River,  which  receives  near  its  head 
waters  the  drainage  from  coal  mines,  the  refuse 
from  manufactories,  and  along  its  course  the  sew- 
age from  towns  and  cities  of  considerable  size. 
Although  a  large  portion  of  the  organic  matter  in 
the  water  may  be  destroyed  by  sunlight  and  expo- 
sure to  the  air,  yet,  with  the  known  great  vitality 
of  the  lower  forms  of  life,  it  is  highly  probable 


USE   OF   SEWAGE.  277 

that  the  germs  or  bacilli  of  typhoid  and  related 
filth  diseases  travel  for  many  days  without  com- 
plete destruction. 

The  existence  of  this  condition  has  led  to  careful 
study  of  the  question  whether  a  better  disposal  of 
sewage  cannot  be  made.  Although  sources  of 
annoyance  and  even  danger  to  public  health,  yet 
these  waste  products  have  some  value  as  fertilizers. 
If,  instead  of  defiling  the  rivers,  the  sewage  can  be 
put  upon  agricultural  land,  two  objects  will  be 
accomplished  —  the  preservation  of  the  purity  of 
rivers,  and  the  consequent  great  gain  to  health 
and  to  various  industries  dependent  upon  pure 
water,  and  the  increase  in  fertility  of  sterile  soil. 

The  conditions  in  Europe  in  regard  to  pollution 
of  streams  have  become  far  worse  than  in  the 
United  States,  because  of  the  greater  density  of 
population.  Elaborate  experiments  have  been 
made  to  demonstrate  the  practicability  of  using 
sewage  in  the  irrigation  of  farming  land ;  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  Paris,  Berlin,  and  a  number  of  other 
cities  large  tracts  are  being  cultivated  by  its  use. 
The  chief  difficulty  arises  from  the  fact  that  there 
is  a  certain  amount  of  sewage  to  be  disposed  of, 
summer  and  winter,  in  the  crop  season  and  out  of 
it,  and  this  quantity  is  often  greatest  during  storms 
or  at  times  when  plants  do  not  need  additional 
moisture.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  provide 
large  areas  of  land,  and  to  regulate  the  application 
of  water  to  these  more  with  reference  to  getting 


2/8  IRRIGATION. 

rid  of  the  sewage  than  with  thought  of  the  actual 
need  of  the  plants. 

In  the  handling  of  a  large  quantity  of  water  a 
very  pervious  or  sandy  soil  has  been  found  best, 
since  this  will  take  up  a  large  amount  of  sewage 
and  retain  the  organic  matter  where  the  roots  of 
the  plants  can  reach  it,  acting  to  a  certain  de- 
gree as  a  filter,  and  delivering  clear  and  harmless 
water  to  the  drains  beneath  the  surface.  The 
plants,  during  the  season  of  growth,  utilize  the 
organic  matter,  and  by  the  aid  of  the  nitrifying 
organisms  convert  it  into  food  for  animals  or 
change  it  to  innoxious  substances. 

The  accompanying  illustration  (PI.  XLV)  gives 
a  view  of  a  field  of  young  corn  being  irrigated  by 
sewage  at  Plainfield,  New  Jersey.  The  sewage  is 
seen  standing  in  furrows  between  the  rows.  The 
water  soaks  away  rapidly,  and  after  the  ground 
has  become  partly -dry  more  sewage  is  let  in,  this 
being  repeated  as  rapidly  as  possible  without 
injury  to  the  growing  plants.  In  this  way  a  rank 
growth  is  obtained.  On  PI.  XLVI,  A,  is  shown  a 
view  of  the  sewage-disposal  works  at  Phoenix, 
Arizona.  Here  the  waste  water  from  the  city  is 
carried  to  a  tract  of  low,  sandy  ground,  portions 
of  which  are  rented  to  Chinese  gardeners,  who  pro- 
duce wonderful  crops. 

The  view  on  the  same  plate,  B,  is  of  a  similarly 
irrigated  farm  in  England,  being  situated,  as  shown 
by  the  picture,  in  a  densely  populated  region.  If 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XLV. 


SEWAGE   FARMS.  279 

properly  conducted,  there  should  be  no  odor  from 
such  a  farm,  and  its  existence  need  not  be  a  cause 
of  offence.  If  neglected,  however,  or  improperly 
managed,  the  sewage  may  become  extremely  un- 
pleasant. 

Sewage  irrigation  has  been  found  profitable 
on  sandy  soils,  even  in  humid  climates,  where 
the  rain  furnishes  ordinarily  an  ample  supply  of 
water  for  plants.  The  increased  yield  due  to  the 
constant  moistening  of  the  soil  and  the  addition  of 
fertilizing  material  more  than  repays  the  additional 
labor  and  expense  of  applying  the  sewage.  In  the 
arid  regions,  where  water  has  greatest  value,  it 
would  seem  self-evident  that  sewage  irrigation 
must  ultimately  be  carried  on  to  such  an  extent 
that  none  of  this  material  will  be  wasted. 

This  method  of  disposing  of  sewage  may  be 
considered  as  a  form  of  slow,  intermittent  filtration, 
in  which  the  top  of  the  filter  is  used  for  growing 
crops.  After  each  watering  the  ground  should  be 
cultivated,  in  order  to  stir  the  sewage  into  the  soil 
and  bring  the  organic  matter  in  contact  with  parti- 
cles of  earth.  The  frequent  wetting  of  the  ground, 
followed  by  thorough  cultivation  and  the  sinking 
away  of  the  water,  allowing  the  air  to  enter,  favors 
the  growth  of  the  nitrifying  organisms  which  con- 
vert the  waste  matter  into  plant  food,  this  being 
taken  away  by  the  crops  as  rapidly  as  it  can  be 
utilized.  There  exists  in  some  localities  a  strong 
prejudice  against  the  use  of  vegetables  grown  by 


280 


IRRIGATION. 


sewage  irrigation.  Experience  has  shown,  how- 
ever, that  with  proper  care  in  applying  the  sewage, 
to  keep  it  away  from  immediate  contact  with  the 
plants,  and  in  washing  the  vegetables  when  used 
in  cooking,  there  is  no  more  danger  to  health  than 
is  likely  to  occur  in  the  use  of  ordinary  fertilizers, 
such  as  stable  manure.  In  fact,  the  precautions 


^/"V/  *'.:*    M'    ,?-';'  .-i  ,//'><'  k  ^Z^NJI"*  "^  4lv|l  V  '* 

\ak.          ^**l>  AM.  .M,  j,l.  .,,-•  ..j  '..,          ji,^**^1*^^'.      *\f-     I  4       -4<.. 


Fid.  88.  —  Channels  and  gates  for  sewage  irrigation. 


which  naturally  follow  the  use  of  sewage  insure  a 
more  careful  handling  of  the  product  than  is  cus- 
tomary in  ordinary  market-gardening  operations. 

The  methods  of  controlling  and  applying  the 
sewage  are  similar  to  those  employed  in  the  use 
of  ditch  water.  The  accompanying  drawing  (Fig. 
88)  shows  a  portion  of  a  field  through  which  per- 
manent channels  have  been  constructed.  These 
are  made  of  concrete  and  provided  with  iron  gates, 


ALKALI.  28l 

making  it  possible  to  wash  out  the  conduits  and 
clean  them  whenever  necessary. 

ALKALI. 

Among  the  chief  disadvantages  which  are  con- 
nected with  the  practice  of  irrigation  is  the  accu- 
mulation of  alkali,  or  earthy  salts,  which  under 
some  conditions  may  ultimately  ruin  the  cultivated 
fields.  In  most  cases  the  injurious  accumulation 
of  alkali  can  be  prevented ;  in  others  the  circum- 
stances are  such  that  destruction  seems  inevitable. 
It  has  been  noted  on  pages  224  and  227  that  the 
excessive  use  of  water  upon  the  fields  promotes 
seepage  and  movement  of  waters  underground. 
These  ultimately  appear  upon  the  surface  in  the 
lowest  spots,  where  they  may  form  marshes  upon 
lands  which  a  few  years  previously  were  dry  and 
may  have  been  highly  cultivated. 

The  formation  of  marshy  ground  can  often  be 
prevented  by  suitable  drains,  so  that  in  many  parts 
of  the  country  drainage  must  follow  irrigation,  and 
the  two  become  parts  of  one  general  system  for 
controlling  moisture.  The  drain  from  one  field 
often  serves  as  an  irrigating  ditch  for  another. 
In  the  early  days,  before  drains  were  built,  it  was 
asserted  that  malarial  conditions  prevailed  around 
irrigated  fields,  and  some  alarm  was  expressed  over 
the  supposed  increase  of  fevers  or  other  diseases 
attributed  to  irrigation.  There  probably  is  no 
basis  for  such  fear,  and  irrigated  farms  are  consid- 


282  IRRIGATION. 

ered  as  healthful  as  any  part  of  the  arid  region, 
the  climate  of  which  ranks  among  the  most  salu- 
brious of  all  portions  of  the  country. 

The  waters  from  seepage  reaching  the  surface 
may  not  be  sufficient  to  produce  marshy  conditions, 
but,  being  evaporated,  leave  on  or  near  the  surface 
any  salt  which  they  may  be  carrying  in  solution. 
Only  the  pure  water  can  escape,  and  any  matter 
which  was  dissolved  is  necessarily  left  behind. 
The  most  easily  soluble  natural  salts  are  those  of 
sodium,  the  most  familiar  of  these  being  sodium 
chloride,  the  ordinary  table  salt,  sodium  carbonate, 
commonly  known  as  sal  soda,  or  by  the  farmer 
as  black  alkali,  and  sodium  sulphate  or  Glauber's 
salt.  All  of  these,  as  well  as  salts  of  lime,  mag- 
nesia, potash,  and  various  other  compounds,  are 
likely  to  be  present  in  small  quantities  in  ordinary 
soils,  through  the  result  of  the  decaying  or  break- 
ing down  of  various  rocks  which  compose  the 
crust  of  the  earth.  The  water  seeping  through 
these  soils  and  rocks,  dissolves  minute  quantities 
of  these  salts  and  carries  them  in  suspension  until 
evaporation  takes  place. 

Before  irrigation  is  introduced  the  soluble  mate- 
rial is  found  to  be  rather  uniformly  distributed 
through  the  soil.  When  water  is  applied  to  the 
surface  in  considerable  quantities,  this  immediately 
dissolves  the  salts  to  the  depth  to  which  the  water 
penetrates.  When  the  supply  is  continuous,  a  part 
of  the  water  may  escape  beneath  the  surface  by 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XLVI. 


A.    SEWAGE   IRRIGATION    AT   PHCENIX.    ARIZONA. 


B.    SEWAGE   IRRIGATION    IN    ENGLAND. 


INJURY    BY   ALKALI.  283 

seepage  and  carry  with  it  the  salts  in  solution. 
This  seepage  water,  travelling  slowly  underground 
for  a  distance  perhaps  of  a  mile  or  more,  ultimately 
finds  its  way  to  the  surface,  where  it  may  enter  a 
stream  and  flow  away,  or  may  appear  as  moist 
spots  on  valley  lands. 

Water  evaporating  from  these  moist  spots  leaves 
behind  the  dissolved  salts,  and  in  course  of  months 
or  years  these  substances  may  accumulate  until 
they  are  visible  to  the  eye  as  either  a  black  stain  or 
a  white  glistening  salt.  Thus  a  fertile  field  which 
is  being  cultivated  year  after  year  may  become  wet 
by  seepage,  through  the  deve!6pment  of  irrigation 
at  higher  points  in  the  valley,  and  the  yield  per 
acre  rapidly  increase,  due  to  this  supply  of  moist- 
ure and  to  the  enriching  material  brought  by  the 
water.  Soon,  however,  spots  appear  where  the 
crops  do  not  thrive,  and  an  examination  shows 
that  the  earthy  salts,  beneficial  in  small  quantities, 
have  become  injurious  and  destructive  by  con- 
centration. 

Part  of  the  water  applied  to  a  field,  after  saturat- 
ing the  soil  returns  gradually  to  the  surface,  to  be 
evaporated,  being  drawn  up  by  capillary  attraction 
or  by  the  action  of  the  roots  of  the  plants.  If 
there  is  an  impervious  subsoil,  nearly  all  of  the 
water  will,  in  time,  thus  be  drawn  up.  In  its  pas- 
sage downward  the  water,  as  previously  stated, 
dissolves  the  soluble  salts,  and  in  its  return  to  the 
surface  brings  these  with  it  and  leaves  them  when 


284  IRRIGATION. 

evaporation  takes  place.  Thus,  in  the  original 
condition,  the  alkali  may  be  distributed  uniformly 
through  10  or  20  feet  in  depth  of  soil,  and  not  be 
sufficiently  great  to  be  noticeable,  so  that  with  or- 
dinary dry  farming  no  difficulties  are  encountered  ; 
but  when  water  is  applied,  the  salts  are  brought 
toward  the  surface  by  the  action  just  described,  and 
are  concentrated  within  a  few  inches  of  the  top, 
where,  if  not  removed,  they  prevent  the  develop- 
ment of  the  plants.  There  are  some  soils,  as  in 
Southern  California,  where  an  excavation,  such  as 
a  cellar,  will  show  on  its  walls  the  bright,  glisten- 
ing alkali.  Here  orchards  have  been  successfully 
cultivated,  but  the  artificial  application  of  water 
would  immediately  kill  these  by  bringing  the  alkali 
to  the  surface.  Such  conditions  are  extreme,  but 
illustrate  the  necessity  of  taking  certain  precautions. 
The  accumulation  of  alkali  can  be  frequently 
prevented  by  draining,  the  seepage  water  carrying 
away  the  salts  into  the  streams  when  an  ample 
amount  of  water  has  been  applied  to  the  surface. 
The  alkali  can  thus  be  washed  out  by  producing  a 
rapid  movement  of  the  water  away  from  the  field, 
either  on  the  surface  or  through  the  soil  into  drains. 
The  mere  flooding  without  washing  away  of  the 
salts  is  not  effective.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that 
where  the  chief  difficulty  arises  from  small  quanti- 
ties of  black  alkali  or  sodium  carbonate,  this  can 
be  neutralized  in  part  by  the  application  of  land 
plaster,  or  gypsum.  This,  consisting  of  sulphate 


WASHING   OUT  ALKALI.  285 

of  lime,  changes  the  sodium  carbonate  into  the 
less  harmful  sodium  sulphate  and  makes  the  lands 
tillable. 

There  is  always  likelihood  of  a  considerable 
amount  of  alkali  in  the  soils  of  arid  regions,  since 
these  have  not  been  washed  through  countless 
centuries  by  copious  rains,  such  as  occur  in  the 
humid  regions.  More  difficulty  is  experienced 
with  clayey  soils  than  with  sandy,  as  the  water 
passes  rapidly  through  the  latter,  washing  out  the 
alkali,  and  the  roots  of  the  crops  are  more  widely 
spread.  Open,  sandy  soils  do  not  become  injured 
by  alkali,  except  under  extreme  conditions. 


CHAPTER   X. 
IRRIGATION  LAW. 

AT  the  outset  the  layman,  in  looking  up  matters 
of  law  relating  to  the  use  of  water  in  irrigation, 
is  impressed  with  the  apparent  confusion  and 
contradictions  he  finds  between  the  theory,  the 
practice,  and  the  decisions  of  courts.  There  are, 
however,  certain  underlying  broad  principles  which 
can  be  recognized,  and  in  spite  of  the  superficial 
confusion  and  apparent  lack  of  agreement  among 
judges  deciding  definite  cases,  these  principles  are, 
on  the  whole,  being  adhered  to  and  given  applica- 
tion in  the  majority  of  cases  which  arise. 

Irrigation  jurisprudence  in  our  country  is  a 
relatively  new  subject  when  compared  with  other 
Nbranches  of  the  law,  the  decisions  concerning  which 
have  come  down  through  centuries  of  English  and 
American  judicature.  It  is  also  to  a  certain  extent 
revolutionary  in  its  tendencies,  since  many  opinions 
concerning  flowing  waters  which  have  been  sus- 
tained by  generations  of  lawyers  must  be  modified 
to  suit  the  conditions  in  the  arid  West.  Neverthe- 
less, the  principles  of  equity  and  the  methods  of 
procedure  are  sufficiently  elastic  to  take  cognizance 

286 


IRRIGATION   LAW.  287 

of  the  altered  conditions,  and,  following  the  needs 
of  the  people,  gradually  swing  into  line  with  them. 
This,  of  course,  must  be  done  by  degrees,  and  some 
criticism  is  provoked  by  the  slowness  with  which 
some  judges  grasp  the  basic  principles  and  the 
imperative  requirements  of  the  arid  region,  result- 
ing from  its  peculiar  physical  condition.  These 
men  are  notably  conservative ;  some  of  them,  com- 
ing from  humid  sections,  fail  to  realize  at  first  the 
true  situation,  and  occasionally  their  decisions  seem 
to  run  counter  to  the  underlying  principles.  Remedy 
has  been  sought  in  some  states  by  elaborate  legis- 
lation and  codes  of  water  law,  but  this  has  often 
served  rather  to  complicate  and  delay  matters  than 
to  expedite  the  best  solution  of  the  difficulties.  A 
legislative  act  may,  in  the  minds  of  its  framers,  fit 
the  peculiar  situation,  and  yet  be  unsuited  to  a  still 
wider  circle  of  interests,  or  to  localities  where  dif- 
ferent conditions  exist.  Many  experiments  in  this 
line  have  been  made,  but  none  of  them  are  wholly 
satisfactory. 

A  great  deal  is  said  about  the  endless  litigation 
pertaining  to  water  rights.  It  is  true  that  in  many 
communities  where  irrigation  is  still  in  what  may 
be  termed  its  formative  or  speculative  stage,  contro- 
versies arise  ;  but  in  settled  communities,  where  the 
artificial  application  of  water  has  been  carried  on 
for  many  years  and  has  been  the  means  of  creat- 
ing homes  and  large  property  interests,  —  as,  for 
example,  in  Southern  California,  —  these  matters 


288  IRRIGATION. 

have  been  settled  to  a  large  extent,  and  litiga- 
tion concerning  water  rights  cannot  be  considered 
as  more  frequent  than  that  relating  to  land  titles 
or  to  any  other  of  the  important  transactions  of 
daily  life. 

One  of  the  principles  which  is  being  firmly  estab- 
lished by  court  decisions  is  that  pertaining  to  the 
original  ownership  of  water  by  the  people,  as  a 
common  stock  to  be  drawn  from  by  individuals 
through  rights  which  they  acquire  or  hold  by 
actual  beneficial  use,  subject  to  public  control 
under  the  police  power  or  as  a  public  use.  All 
claims  to  water  are,  under  this  principle,  limited  to 
actual  and  beneficial  use.  The  common  stock  of 
water  is  limited  in  quantity,  and  until  all  of  it  is 
put  to  beneficial  use,  persons  desiring  to  thus  em- 
ploy portions  of  it  are  at  liberty  to  do  so,  provided 
they  do  not  interfere  with  the  rights  of  others. 
Whenever  this  use  is  abandoned,  the  water  re- 
turns to  the  common  stock,  to  supply  the  needs  of 
others.  The  fundamental  principle  is  that  bene- 
ficial use  is  not  only  the  foundation  and  basis  of 
the  right,  but  likewise  the  measure  and  the  limit 
thereof. 

One  of  the  most  striking  differences  between  the 
law  governing  the  use  of  water  in  the  arid  region 
and  that  governing  its  use  in  humid  regions  grows 
out  of  the  diametrically  opposite  way  in  which  the 
streams,  whether  above  or  under  the  ground,  are 
regarded  by  the  lawmakers  of  the  two  sections. 


RIPARIAN    RIGHTS.  289 

The  common  law  of  the  United  States,  brought 
from  England,  has  for  its  object  the  preservation 
of  the  natural  streams  in  their  channels  without 
diminution  or  disturbance.  Each  owner  of  land 
bordering  upon  a  stream  or  through  which  a  brook 
flows  is  protected  against  any  change  in  the  course 
or  behavior  of  the  stream,  except  from  natural 
causes ;  and  he  in  turn  is  prohibited  from  bring- 
ing about  any  modification  which  may  affect  other 
landowners  below  or  above.  This  requirement, 
useful  where  water  is  not  needed  for  irrigation,  is 
directly  contrary  to  the  vital  necessities  of  the  arid 
region.  It  is  impossible  for  agriculture  to  exist  there 
unless  water  is  taken  from  the  streams.  The  first 
step  toward  settlement  of  the  dry  land,  one  taken 
even  before  houses  are  built,  is  the  diversion  of 
water  from  the  streams.  Not  only  is  water  thus 
carried  upon  adjacent  valley  lands,  but  it  may  be 
conveyed  across  natural  divides,  and  the  excess  al- 
lowed to  flow  into  an  entirely  different  system  of 
drainage. 

The  law  of  riparian  rights  must  apparently  be 
set  aside  at  the  very  outset  because  of  the  neces- 
sities of  occupation  and  settlement.  In  reality, 
however,  it  may  be  considered,  not  as  being  abso- 
lutely repealed,  but  as  modified  to  suit  the  differ- 
ence in  climate.  In  the  state  of  California,  where 
both  humid  and  arid  conditions  prevail,  riparian 
rights  have  from  the  first  been  recognized,  but  the 
decisions  of  the  courts  have  finally  interpreted  these 


290  IRRIGATION. 

to  mean  that  riparian  proprietors  are  entitled  to  cer- 
tain privileges  only  to  the  extent  to  which  these  have 
been  utilized.  That  is  to  say,  a  landowner  cannot 
enjoin  a  diversion  of  the  water  on  the  stream  above 
him  unless  it  interferes  with  some  beneficial  use  by 
him  of  the  water ;  if,  however,  he  was  using  the 
stream  to  water  a  hundred  cattle,  and  for  nothing 
else,  he  could  compel  sufficient  water  for  these 
cattle  to  be  allowed  to  flow  in  the  stream,  but  the 
remaining  water,  which  may  be  a  hundred  or  a 
thousand  times  the  needs  of  his  cattle,  can  be 
taken  out  for  the  irrigation  of  dry  lands,  provided 
no  other  beneficial  use  by  lower  proprietors  is  inter- 
fered with.  In  other  words,  riparian  rights  can  be 
enforced  only  for  the  protection  of  the  beneficial 
use  to  which  the  water  has  been  put  by  the  riparian 
owner.  Although,  as  a  naked  legal  right,  the  right 
of  the  riparian  owner  to  the  undiminished  flow  of 
the  stream  may  be  conceded,  yet,  when  it  comes  to 
the  remedy  for  its  infringement,  he  practically  has 
none,  unless  he  can  show,  as  a  basis  for  his  appli- 
cation for  an  injunction,  that  there  is  an  interference 
with  some  beneficial  use  of  the  water  by  him.  The 
basis  of  a  riparian  owner's  right,  like  the  right  of 
an  appropriator,  is  thus  resolved  back  to  the  same 
principle  —  that  of  beneficial  use. 

This  view  of  the  right  to  take  or  appropriate  the 
unused  flowing  water  involves  the  consideration  of 
the  ownership  of  streams.  There  can  be  no  ques- 
tion as  to  who  owns  the  land  through  or  along 


OWNERSHIP   OF   WATER.  291 

which  a  stream  flows.  Individuals  or  corporations 
may  unquestionably  own  the  lands  and  the  ditches 
or  structures  conveying  water,  but  the  actual  body 
or  corpus  of  the  flowing  water  itself  cannot,  from 
its  very  nature,  be  classed  as  property  which  is 
capable  of  ownership  by  a  person.  It  is  held  that 
in  the  arid  region,  where  the  land  originally  be- 
longed to  the  United  States,  and  where  portions 
have  been  disposed  of,  the  unused  waters  both 
above  and  under  the  government  lands  still  belong 
to  the  government  as  part  and  parcel  of  the  land. 

Under  federal  statutes  and  state  laws  the  use  of 
the  water  is  guaranteed  to  certain  individuals  to  the 
extent  to  which  they  put  it  to  beneficial  use,  and 
usually  in  the  order  in  which  they  have  thus  em- 
ployed the  water.  In  theory,  at  least,  the  man  who 
first  irrigated  10  acres  should  continue  indefinitely 
to  have  enough  water  for  his  10  acres,  while  the 
man  who  next  irrigated  20  acres  can  have  sufficient 
water  for  his  area  only  when  it  is  apparent  that  the 
first  man  can  also  have  his  share ;  and  so  on,  each 
person  receiving  an  amount  of  water  sufficient  for 
the  needs  of  his  cultivated  tract  in  the  order  in 
which  this  was  put  under  irrigation  (see  p.  79). 

This  is  known  as  the  law  of  priorities.  In 
theory  it  is  extremely  simple  and  just,  but  in 
practice  it  may  be  very  complex,  and  its  opera- 
tions apparently  unfair.  For  example,  after  a 
country  has  been  settled  for  a  generation  or  more, 
there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  good  reason  why  a 


292  IRRIGATION. 

certain  individual,  who  perhaps  may  be  the  poor- 
est farmer  of  the  community,  should  always  have 
ample  water  simply  because  the  man  from  whom 
he  purchased  or  inherited  his  farm  happened  to 
take  out  and  apply  water  a  few  days  or  months 
before  his  neighbors  did. 

A  strict  determination  of  priorities  also  leads 
to  waste  of  water,  as  the  earliest  settlers  may 
have  been  located  at  considerable  intervals  along 
a  stream,  10  or  even  50  miles  apart,  and  on  the 
lower,  poorer  lands,  and  so  situated  that  water  can 
be  taken  to  them  in  small  quantities  only  at  great 
expense  and  loss  of  volume.  As  the  country  de- 
velops, and  every  drop  of  water  is  needed,  the 
equities  seem  to  demand  that  the  priorities  which 
at  first  were  fair  and  just  should  give  way  to  the 
largest  and  best  use  of  the  flowing  streams.  Ten 
men  should  not  be  deprived  of  the  use  of  the  life- 
giving  fluid  to  satisfy  the  claims  of  a  single  indi- 
vidual. If  water  were  a  property  in  the  sense  of 
land,  this  consideration  could  not  arise ;  but  if  it 
is  something  which  belongs  to  the  public,  to  be 
enjoyed  by  the  greatest  number,  the  course  of 
events  must  bring  about  a  gradual  readjustment 
by  a  series  of  compromises  or  exchanges,  such  as 
has  eventuated  in  the  Cache  la  Poudre  Valley  of 
Colorado  and  in  other  parts  of  the  arid  region. 

Instead  of  distributing  water  strictly  according 
to  priority  of  time,  there  has  arisen  in  certain 
localities  a  system  known  as  prorating  water,  or 


PRIORITY   OF   APPROPRIATION.  293 

dividing  it  proportionally  to  the  amount  available. 
This  may  be  considered  as  the  opposite  extreme 
or  alternative  of  the  exercise  of  prior  rights.  In 
the  simplest  form  this  is  practised  by  farmers  liv- 
ing along  a  ditch  which  they  have  built  in  common 
and  have  enlarged  from  time  to  time.  Each  man 
shares  in  the  water  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
labor  he  has  put  upon  the  construction,  this  being 
based  presumably  upon  the  area  of  land  which  he 
intends  to  irrigate.  No  consideration  is  given  to 
the  fact  that  one  man  near  the  head  of  the  ditch 
irrigated  certain  tracts  before  other  farmers,  who  may 
be  at  the  lower  end  or  upon  an  extension,  commenced 
to  irrigate  theirs.  In  times  of  scarcity  the  first 
user  of  the  water  receives  the  same  proportion  of 
his  usual  share  as  his  associates,  who  may  be  later 
comers,  receive  of  their  shares.  Along  extensive 
canal  systems  the  strict  application  of  priorities 
must  occasionally  give  way  in  times  of  scarcity  to 
a  proportional  division  of  water. 

Even  in  localities  where  theoretically  water  is 
divided  according  to  priority  of  appropriation, 
there  is  practised  a  considerable  amount  of  pro- 
rating. It  is  impossible  in  a  community  to  de- 
prive a  third  or  a  quarter  of  the  people  of  water, 
and  compel  their  crops  to  be  destroyed,  in  order  to 
give  the  full  appropriation  to  a  favored  few.  Pri- 
orities are  also,  for  administrative  purposes,  occa- 
sionally lumped,  particularly  in  Utah,  where  a  group 
of  farmers  who  irrigated  before  1870  share  equally, 


294  IRRIGATION. 

while  those  who  irrigated  from  1870  to  1880  are 
considered  as  holding  secondary  claims,  and  share 
in  common,  dividing  what  is  left  after  the  priorities 
are  supplied,  and  so  on,  a  general  priority  of  right 
by  groups  of  irrigators  being  recognized,  and 
within  these  groups  water  being  distributed  pro- 
portionally. 

There  is  a  tendency,  as  the  country  develops,  to 
abandon  the  strict  observance  of  priorities,  and 
ultimately,  when  all  of  the  land  has  been  brought 
under  irrigation,  to  prorate  the  water.  This  is 
essential  to  the  utilization  of  the  available  supply 
by  the  greatest  possible  number.  Experience  has 
shown  that  in  the  economical  management  of  any 
large  irrigation  system  water  must  be  apportioned 
to  the  different  laterals  with  respect  to  physical 
conditions  and  needs  rather  than  to  the  strict  con- 
struction of  the  priorities  of  the  various  irrigators. 
In  the  same  way  the  apportionment  of  water  from 
the  rivers,  to  accomplish  the  most  good,  must  ulti- 
mately be  along  natural  lines  rather  than  be  based 
upon  arbitrary  systems  resulting  from  the  accidents 
of  location  of  the  first  settlers. 

It  has  been  held  by  able  advocates  that  the 
right  to  the  use  of  the  water  becomes  inseparably 
appurtenant  to  the  land  upon  which  it  is  used,  so 
that  if  the  land  should  be  washed  away  by  the 
shifting  of  a  river  in  flood,  the  right  to  the  use  of 
the  water  would  be  extinguished.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  has  been  held  that  the  right  to  the  use  of 


WATER   APPURTENANT   TO    LAND.         295 

the  water  vests  in  the  person  who  puts  it  to  bene- 
ficial use,  and  becomes  appurtenant,  but  not  insep- 
arably appurtenant,  to  the  land  irrigated.  In  this 
case,  the  owner  of  the  land  would  have  the  right, 
if  the  rights  of  the  other  persons  were  not  affected 
thereby,  to  change  the  use  from  one  piece  of  land 
to  another ;  but  the  right  itself  could  only  be  held 
as  appurtenant  to  some  piece  of  land  —  in  other 
words,  there  would  not  be  a  floating  water  right 
owned  separate  and  apart  from  any  land.  The 
practice  and  the  current  of  judicial  decision 
throughout  the  arid  region  seem  to  be  more  in 
accordance  with  the  latter  view.  A  man  irrigates 
a  certain  tract,  and  acquires  the  right  to  the  con- 
tinued use  of  a  definite  quantity  of  water  for  that 
purpose;  a  portion  of  this  land  may  become 
swampy  by  seepage  or  injured  by  alkali,  or  he 
may  purchase  additional  adjacent  land  or  a  farm 
lying  farther  down  the  canal,  where  the  soil  is 
better.  Few  people  would  dispute  his  right  to  use 
the  water  upon  this  contiguous  or  neighboring 
land,  and  he  would  continue  his  farming  opera- 
tions undisturbed,  provided  that  in  so  doing  he 
did  not  interfere  with  the  rights  of  others.  He 
might  even  arrange  to  receive  his  water  through 
another  ditch,  and  a  considerable  number  of  his 
neighbors  might  join  with  him.  If,  however,  by 
so  doing,  the  enjoyment  of  other  persons  in  their 
vested  rights  should  be  injuriously  affected,  they 
would  have  the  right  to  prevent  such  changes. 


296  IRRIGATION. 

When  we  consider,  however,  not  the  right  of  the 
individual  irrigator,  but  that  of  a  canal  company, 
the  question  becomes  more  complicated,  and  it 
may  be  necessary  to  distinguish  between  rights  to 
divert  water,  rights  to  carry  it,  and  rights  to  fur- 
nish water  to  users  and  charge  therefor;  these 
being  distinct  from  the  right  to  have  the  use  of 
the  water  for  actual  irrigation  upon  the  land. 
These  various  rights  or  privileges  which  lead  up 
to  the  controlling  factor,  that  of  actually  using 
the  water,  have  not  been  clearly  distinguished, 
but  for  convenience  of  discussion  each  may  be 
considered  as  being  separate. 

These  several  rights  of  diverting,  carrying,  and 
supplying  water  to  users  are  usually  considered  to 
be  enjoyed  by  a  canal  company  as  a  public  agency 
in  the  nature  of  a  carrier.  There  is  no  actual 
ownership  of  the  water  in  the  same  sense  that  the 
canal  and  regulating  works  are  owned;  but  while 
the  water  is  in  the  canal,  the  company  may  be 
said  to  stand  in  the  relation  of  a  trustee,  convey- 
ing the  water  to  the  persons  who  have  the  eventual 
right  to  put  it  to  beneficial  use.  The  company,  if 
it  owns  land,  may  also  have  the  right  to  the  use  of 
the  water,  but  only  to  the  extent  to  which  the 
water  can  be  put  to  beneficial  use. 

The  rate  charged  for  carrying  the  water  is  in 
several  states  fixed  by  the  county  commissioners. 
The  manner  in  which  the  water  is  conveyed  to  the 
places  of  use,  as  well  as  the  point  of  diversion,  may 


RIGHTS   OF   DIVERSION.  297 

be  changed,  when  by  so  doing  injury  to  other  in- 
terests are  not  involved. 

Canal  companies,  as  appropriators,  are  allowed 
to  divert  water  from  the  streams,  and  are  given 
reasonable  time  in  which  to  begin  the  work, 
after  posting  the  notice  of  appropriation;  and 
irrigators  who  may  wish  to  use  the  water  are 
also  allowed  a  reasonable  time  in  which  to  com- 
plete the  act  of  appropriation  by  applying  water 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  No  definite  rule  has 
been  established  as  to  what  constitutes  this  reason- 
able time,  though  the  usual  legal  rules  concerning 
due  diligence  are  generally  applied.  It  has  been 
held  that  when  the  water  is  thus  used  the  right 
under  the  appropriation  relates  back  to  the  time 
when  the  notice  was  posted,  or  to  the  time  when 
water  was  diverted  from  the  stream  by  the  canal. 
The  public  records  of  these  matters,  which  in  some 
states  are  required  to  be  kept  by  the  county  offi- 
cials, are  often  extremely  defective  as  regards  the 
various  claims  and  times  of  appropriation,  the  facts 
being  usually  established,  if  at  all,  by  testimony 
taken  in  disputed  cases. 

In  one  state,  Wyoming,  rights  to  use  water  can- 
not be  obtained  until  application  has  been  made, 
and  the  state  engineer  has  ascertained  whether 
there  is  unappropriated  water.  The  conditions  in 
this  state  are  unusually  favorable  to  such  a  system 
of  control,  as  the  altitude  of  the  state  is  high,  limit- 
ing farming  operations,  the  water  supply  is  large, 


298  IRRIGATION. 

and  the  ditch  systems  are  relatively  simple.  The 
attempt  to  introduce  a  similar  system  in  other 
states  has  not  as  yet  been  successful,  and  there 
appears  to  be  a  fear  on  the  part  of  irrigators  that 
their  existing  rights  may  be  jeopardized  and  further 
developments  prevented  by  the  exercise  of  a  con- 
trol beyond  that  of  the  ordinary  course  of  law. 

The  belief  is  widespread  that  it  is  preferable  to 
allow  developments  to  proceed  under  existing  laws 
and  customs,  modifying  these  from  time  to  time 
in  detail  as  may  be  necessary,  rather  than  to 
attempt  by  legislation  to  bring  about  ideal  condi- 
tions, whose  success  depends  largely  upon  an  ideal 
administration.  Although  controversies  arise,  it  is 
recognized  that  the  present  is  a  transition  period, 
and  that  the  communities  which  have  been  let 
alone  to  work  out  their  own  methods  of  apportion- 
ing water  have,  as  a  rule,  succeeded  better  than 
those  in  states  where  radical  legislation  has  been 
attempted. 


CHAPTER    XL 

STATES  AND  TERRITORIES  OF  THE   ARID   REGIONS. 

EACH  portion  of  the  arid  region  possesses  cer- 
tain peculiarities  of  topography,  climate,  water 
supply,  and  cultural  conditions.  In  discussing 
these  it  is  convenient  to  consider  them  by  political 
divisions,  since  the  latter  are  easily  recognized  by 
name.  Each  state  and  territory  is  so  large  that 
it  embraces  usually  a  number  of  distinct  climatic 
conditions,  but  in  a  brief  review  these  may  be 
classed  together.  For  convenience  the  states  and 
territories  are  here  taken  up  in  alphabetical  order ; 
they  are :  Arizona,  California,  Colorado,  Idaho, 
Montana,  Nevada,  New  Mexico,  Oregon,  Utah, 
Washington,  and  Wyoming. 

The  following  table  gives  the  extent  of  irrigation 
at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  decade  1890-1900, 
and  shows  the  gradual  increase  of  this  method  of 
tilling  the  soil.  The  location  of  the  irrigated  areas 
is  shown  in  Fig.  14,  p.  54,  together  with  the 
irrigable  lands.  The  possible  water  supply  is 
given  in  the  last  column  of  the  table  on  p.  55 
in  millions  of  acres.  There  is  water  enough  for 
over  60,000,000  acres  if  fully  conserved  by  reser- 

299 


300 


IRRIGATION. 


voirs  or  developed  by  wells,  tunnels,  and  diversion 
canals. 

AREA   IRRIGATED. 


STATE  OR  TERRITORY. 

1890. 

l'.)00. 

A  cres. 

Acres. 

Arizona      

70,000 

190,000 

California  

I,2OO,OOO 

I,5OO,OOO 

Colorado    

1,000,000 

I,4OO,OOO 

Idaho          

230,000 

600,000 

Montana    

380,000 

I,OOO,OOO 

Nevada       

240,000 

5IO,OOO 

New  Mexico       .... 

95,000 

200,000 

Oregon       

180,000 

4OO,OOO 

Utah  

300,000 

650,000 

Washington        .         .         .         . 

100,000 

1  5O,OOO 

Wyoming  ..... 

250,000 

600,000 

Subhumid  

70,000 

100,000 

Total  

4,115,000 

7,3OO,OOO 

The  total  area  of  these  states  has  been  given 
on  p.  6.  A  comparison  of  this  with  the  acreage 
irrigated  shows  that  the  land  cultivated  in  this 
manner  forms  less  than  i  per  cent  of  the  total 
extent  of  most  of  these  states.  It  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  the  whole  of  the  arid  region  is  irri- 
gable, but  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  area  cm 
ultimately  be  increased  until  ten  times  as  much 
land  has  been  brought  under  cultivation.  The 
size  of  these  states  is  so  great  that  it  is  impossible 
to  form  a  clear  conception  of  their  extent  without 
making  comparisons  with  other  political  divisions 


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302  IRRIGATION. 

in  the  United  States  and  with  some  of  the  coun- 
tries of  the  Old  World.  A  single  county  in  one 
of  these  Western  states  or  territories  may  be 
larger  than  one  of  the  older  states  of  the  Atlantic 
seaboard.  To  bring  out  this  comparison  Fig.  89 
has  been  prepared,  showing  the  outlines  of  the 
states.  Across  these  have  been  lettered  the 
names  of  several  foreign  countries  whose  area  is 
very  nearly  equal  to  that  of  one  or  more  of  the 
states.  For  example,  Spain  has  about  the  same 
extent  as  Utah  and  Nevada.  Italy  is  approxi- 
mately equal  in  area  to  Arizona,  or  to  the  Philip- 
pine Islands.  Various  other  interesting  comparisons 
are  afforded  in  the  East  as  well  as  in  the  West. 

Similar  comparisons  are  made  on  Fig.  90,  which 
shows  only  the  western  portion  of  the  United 
States,  and  with  a  little  different  combination 
of  foreign  countries.  In  particular,  the  states 
Oregon  and  Washington  are  seen  to  be  equivalent 
to  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  Denmark,  and  Switzer- 
land. Having  in  mind  the  great  difference  in 
population,  we  cannot  fail  to  be  impressed  with 
the  opportunities  for  increase  of  population  and 
industries,  especially  as  the  resources  of  these 
Western  states  are  of  great  extent  and  have  hardly 
yet  been  exploited.  There  is  apparently  no  reason 
why  our  Western  states  should  not,  in  the  distant 
future,  be  capable  of  furnishing  homes  and  profit- 
able occupation  for  as  large  a  population  as  some 
of  the  countries  whose  names  are  placed  across 


COMPARISON    OF   AREAS. 


303 


them.     The  ultimate  realization  of  such  conditions 
rests,  however,  largely  upon  the  treatment  which 


FIG.  90.  — Western  United  States  compared  with  foreign  countries. 

in  the  near  future  shall  be  accorded  to  the  water 
resources,  especially  in  the  way  of  guarding  these 
from  speculative  monopoly. 


304  IRRIGATION. 

ARIZONA. 

This  territory,  not  yet  admitted  as  a  state,  em- 
braces 112,920  square  miles,  or  72,268,800  acres, 
in  the  driest  and  hottest  part  of  the  United  States. 
Its  population  in  1900  was  122,931,  nearly  equal 
to  that  of  the  states  of  Nevada  and  Wyoming 
combined.  The  average  for  the  whole  territory  is 
about  one  person  to  the  square  mile.  In  area  the 
territory  is  a  little  larger  than  Italy,  which  has  a  pop- 
ulation of  33,000,000,  and  a  little  smaller  than  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain,  with  41,000,000 
people.  The  principal  part  of  the  population  is 
in  the  Salt  River  Valley,  in  the  vicinity  of  Phoenix, 
the  capital  city.  The  land  here,  as  well  as  in  many 
other  parts  of  the  territory,  is  extremely  fertile,  and 
lacks  only  an  adequate  water  supply. 

Increase  of  population  and  industry  is  limited 
directly  by  the  possibilities  of  water  storage. 
More  land  has  already  been  brought  under  ditch 
and  partly  cultivated  than  can  be  supplied  with 
water  in  ordinary  years.  Great  tracts  of  country 
can,  however,  be  utilized  for  home-making  when 
the  waters  which  now  run  to  waste  are  carefully 
held  for  time  of  need. 

Not  only  is  the  necessity  for  water  storage 
greater  in  Arizona  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
United  States,  but  the  opportunities  for  construct- 
ing reservoirs  on  a  large  scale  seem  to  be  best 
there.  There  are  in  the  territory  a  considerable 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XLVII. 


ARIZONA.  305 

number  of  valleys  whose  position  and  form  offer 
unusual  facilities  for  holding  the  occasional  floods. 

Considering  the  territory  as  a  whole,  there  are 
two  distinct  provinces,  separated  by  a  line  of  cliffs 
or  mesas  extending  diagonally  from  northwest  to 
southeast.  Above,  or  north  of,  this  line  the  coun- 
try may  be  pictured  as  a  plateau  having  an  eleva- 
tion of  approximately  6000  feet,  much  of  it  covered 
with  pine  forests.  The  surface  is  undulating,  and 
mountain  masses  rise  from  it.  The  rivers  have  cut 
enormous  canyons  in  this  plateau,  the  Grand  Can- 
yon of  the  Colorado  being  one  of  the  most  stupen- 
dous gorges  in  the  world. 

The  smaller  tributaries  of  the  Colorado  flow  in 
narrow  gorges  1000  feet  or  more  in  depth,  and  the 
small  streams  which  occupy  the  bottoms  of  these 
cannot  be  taken  out  to  irrigate  the  upland.  Agri- 
culture without  the  artificial  application  of  water 
is  carried  on  to  a  small  extent,  especially  on  the 
higher  plateaus,  and  some  irrigation  is  practised 
wherever  sufficient  ground  can  be  found  along  the 
mountain  streams.  The  northern  part  of  the  ter- 
ritory cannot  be  considered  as  having  large  oppor- 
tunities for  the  creation  of  homes  when  compared 
with  the  southern  part. 

From  the  south  front  of  the  great  escarpment 
or  mesa  a  number  of  streams  flow  southerly, 
joining  to  form  Salt  River  and  its  large  tributary, 
the  Verde.  These  unite  and  flow  westerly  through 
a  broad  valley,  entering  Gila  River,  which  con- 


306  IRRIGATION. 

tinues  southwesterly  across  the  territory  into  Col- 
orado River.  The  valley  of  Salt  River  on  the 
south  merges  imperceptibly  into  the  broad  desert 
traversed  by  the  Gila  and  reaching  beyond  the 
Mexican  border.  There  are  millions  of  acres  of 
good  land  in  this  area,  but  only  a  small  portion  can 
ever  be  supplied  with  water,  even  after  all  the 
possible  reservoirs  have  been  built  and  artesian 
wells  constructed.  Since  the  maximum  possible 
supply  falls  far  short  of  the  needs  of  all  the  land, 
the  remainder  must  always  be  barren,  unless  some 
desert-loving  plants  valuable  to  man  be  discovered 
and  introduced. 

A  short  distance  below  the  junction  of  the  Salt 
and  Verde  a  number  of  canals,  heading  on  one 
side  or  the  other  of  the  stream,  take  out  all  of  the 
ordinary  flow  and  carry  it  to  the  lands  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Phoenix.  The  altitude  here  is  about  1000 
feet,  and  the  climatic  conditions  are  such  that 
oranges  and  other  citrus  fruits  thrive,  and  in  some 
localities  dates  have  been  successfully  introduced. 
The  principal  forage  crop  is  alfalfa,  of  which  from 
five  to  seven  cuttings  a  year  are  made  if  ample 
water  is  available.  This  enables  the  farmers  to 
produce  a  large  amount  of  hay  from  a  relatively 
small  acreage.  With  other  products  there  are  usu- 
ally two  crops  each  year,  and  sometimes  more,  the 
ground  being  immediately  cultivated  and  planted 
after  each  harvest.  Thus,  with  continuous  warmth 
and  sunshine  and  with  the  necessary  water,  in- 


ARIZONA.  307 

tensive  farming  is  practised,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  a  family  of  five  persons  can  be  well  supported 
upon  twenty  acres,  or  even  less,  if  covered  with 
producing  orchards. 

Only  a  small  portion  of  the  good  land  is  in 
actual  use,  the  amount  appearing  almost  insignifi- 
cant on  a  map  of  the  territory.  This  can  be 
greatly  increased  by  water  storage,  and  in  a  less 
degree  by  deep  or  artesian  wells.  Around  the 
Salt  River  Valley,  on  both  the  north  and  the  east, 
among  the  mountains,  are  a  number  of  storage 
sites,  the  most  notable  of  these  being  at  the  junc- 
tion of  Tonto  Creek  and  Salt  River.  Careful  sur- 
veys of  several  of  these  localities  have  been  made, 
plans  prepared,  and  cost  and  benefits  estimated. 
These  investigations  should  be  extended  to  include 
every  possible  locality. 

South  of  the  Salt  River  is  the  Upper  Gila,  a 
stream  somewhat  smaller,  or  furnishing  a  less 
amount  of  water.  Along  its  course  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  territory  are  several  broad  valleys,  the 
most  noteworthy  being  in  the  vicinity  of  Solomon- 
ville.  Here,  as  in  many  other  parts  of  the  terri- 
tory, Mormon  pioneers  have  taken  out  ditches  and 
brought  large  tracts  of  land  under  cultivation. 
Farther  down,  canals  have  been  taken  out  to  cover 
land  southeasterly  from  Phoenix,  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  town  of  Florence,  and  the  supply  here  has  been 
decidedly  diminished  by  the  diversions  at  points 
above. 


308  IRRIGATION. 

Still  farther  west,  and  down-stream  from  Flor- 
ence, near  the  junction  of  Salt  River,  is  a  large 
tract  of  desert  land  intersected  by  small,  steep 
mountains  which  seem  to  rise  out  of  the  nearly 
level  floor.  This  is  the  Gila  River  Indian  Reser- 
vation, set  aside  for  the  Pima,  Papago,  and  Mari- 
copa  Indians.  These  people  have  always  been 
tillers  of  the  soil,  having  practised  irrigation  long 
before  the  advent  of  the  whites.  Like  most  agri- 
cultural natives,  they  have  been  peaceable  and 
friendly,  and  have  even  assisted  immigrants  in 
defending  themselves  from  attack  by  the  savage 
Apaches  who  dwell  in  the  mountains  near  the 
head  waters  of  the  stream. 

With  the  gradual  diversion  of  the  waters  of 
Gila  River  in  the  vicinity  of  Florence,  and  particu- 
larly in  the  Solomonville  Valley,  the  quantity  in  the 
river  has  been  diminished,  until  for  several  years  in 
succession  there  has  not  been  a  sufficient  amount 
for  the  Indians.  They  have  been  forced  to  depend 
upon  chance  support,  and,  induced  by  hunger,  to 
steal  the  cattle  of  their  white  neighbors.  Their 
children  have  been  sent  to  school  and  educated, 
but,  on  returning  to  their  homes,  find  nothing  to 
do,  as  farming  cannot  be  practised  without  a  water 
supply.  To  prevent  actual  starvation,  the  govern- 
ment has  appropriated  money  for  feeding  these 
Indians,  and  while  going  to  great  expense  in 
education,  is  at  the  same  time  pauperizing  the 
people. 


ARIZONA.  309 

To  enable  these  Indians  to  again  become  self- 
supporting,  it  is  essential  that  they  be  provided 
with  an  ample  water  supply.  Many  investigations 
have  been  made,  and  it  has  been  found  that  there 
are  a  number  of  places  on  the  Gila  River  where 
reservoirs  of  large  size  can  be  built.  It  is  not  prac- 
ticable, however,  to  construct  small  reservoirs,  as 
these  would  be  quickly  filled  with  silt,  and  the  ex- 
pense of  building  dams  for  them  would  be  nearly 
as  great  as  that  of  structures  for  reservoirs  of  the 
largest  possible  capacity. 

The  best  place  found  upon  the  Gila  River  is  near 
San  Carlos,  on  the  White  Mountain  Indian  Reser- 
vation, occupied  by  the  Apaches.  Here  can  be 
built  a  reservoir  sufficient  to  supply  the  needs  of 
the  Indians  and  to  reclaim  at  least  100,000  acres 
of  government  land.  This  land,  if  thrown  open  to 
homestead  entry,  subject  to  payment  for  the  water, 
would  doubtless  be  taken  up  immediately,  and  the 
government  reimbursed  for  its  outlay. 

There  are  a  number  of  smaller  streams  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  territory,  each  of  which  is  now 
utilized  to  its  full  capacity  when  at  ordinary  stages. 
The  floods  of  these  streams  could  be  stored  and 
used  upon  tracts  of  government  land,  thus  provid- 
ing opportunities  for  many  additional  farms.  The 
violence  of  some  of  these  deluges  is  illustrated  by 
PI.  VIII,  giving  a  view  of  the  bridge  across  Salt 
River,  which  was  partly  destroyed  by  a  rush  of 
water  that  carried  out  practically  all  of  the  dams 


310  IRRIGATION. 

and  head  gates  along  its  course.  This  is  excep- 
tional ;  but  it  is  possible  to  provide  storage  to  hold 
the  ordinary  floods  on  many  of  the  streams  and 
reduce  the  violence  of  the  extraordinary  ones. 

There  is  probably  no  place  in  the  United  States, 
except  possibly  in  Southern  California,  where  the 
marvellous  results  accomplished  by  irrigation  are 
more  conspicuous  than  in  Arizona,  particularly  in 
the  Salt  River  Valley  in  the  vicinity  of  Phoenix. 
Here,  on  the  broad  desert  valley,  bare  of  vegeta- 
tion except  for  an  occasional  dry,  dusty  group  of 
thorny  plants,  the  venturesome  pioneer  took  out 
small  ditches,  many  of  these  following  the  ancient, 
almost  obliterated,  lines  of  the  canals  of  the  prehis- 
toric agricultural  Indians,  the  ruins  of  whose  towns 
dot  the  plains.  Under  the  brilliant  and  intense 
sunlight,  the  moistened  soil  yielded  bountifully,  and 
the  small  ditches  were  rapidly  enlarged  and  canals 
built  to  cover  more  and  more  ground. 

The  dry  climate,  especially  of  the  winter  season, 
is  found  to  be  advantageous  to  human  beings  as 
well  as  to  plants,  and  renewed  vitality  has  been 
given  to  many  an  invalid  from  the  cold  and  stormy 
North.  The  success  attained  with  oranges  and 
other  citrus  fruits,  as  well  as  with  grapes,  prunes, 
plums,  and  various  fruits  needing  the  warm  climate, 
has  led  to  a  rapid  widening  of  the  area  devoted  to 
vineyards  (PI.  XLVII)  and  orchards,  these  revenue- 
producing  vines  and  trees  being  supplemented  by 
luxuriant  growth  of  palms,  rose  bushes,  and  innu- 


tRIGATION. 


PLATE  XLVIII. 


ARIZONA.  311 

merable  varieties  of  ornamental  and  flowering 
shrubs.  The  delicate  house  plants,  tenderly  cared 
for  in  the  North,  here  develop  to  wonderful  size 
and  variety,  being  hardly  recognizable  in  the  sturdy, 
treelike  forms  which  threaten  to  bury  the  suburban 
houses  in  a  perfect  jungle  of  flowering  branches 
and  creepers,  all  the  result  of  watering  the  dusty 
plains. 

The  fruits  of  the  Salt  River  Valley  are  not 
brought  into  immediate  competition  with  those  of 
Southern  California,  as  it  is  possible  to  put  them 
upon  the  market  at  an  earlier  date,  and  a  certain 
advantage  is  given  in  a  shorter  haul  toward  the 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  states,  this  being  an  important 
item  in  the  handling  of  the  fresh  fruits.  Great 
quantities  are  thus  shipped  out;  but  the  prin- 
cipal dependence  is  placed  upon  dried  fruits  (PL 
XLVIII)  and  upon  alfalfa,  which  is  used  in  fatten- 
ing cattle  that  range  throughout  the  year  upon  the 
mountains  adjacent  to  the  Salt  River  Valley  and 
upon  the  plateaus  of  the  northern  part  of  the  state. 

The  development  of  irrigation  and  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  cultivated  area  is  continuing  up  to  the 
limit  of  the  water  supply,  and  many  canals  have 
been  built  or  are  projected  to  cover  areas  for  which 
in  ordinary  seasons  there  is  not  sufficient  water. 
In  order  to  bring  about  economy,  some  of  the 
ditches  and  canals  have  been  consolidated,  reduc- 
ing the  losses  by  seepage  and  evaporation.  This 
is  the  first  step  in  the  evolution  of  a  system  of  con- 


312  IRRIGATION. 

trol  which  must  ultimately  be  worked  out  to  suit 
the  conditions  in  each  locality. 

The  next  and  most  important  step  in  growth  is 
the  construction  of  reservoirs  wherever  practicable, 
since  there  is  need  for  all  of  the  water  which  can 
possibly  be  held.  The  erratic  floods  are  too  valu- 
able to  be  allowed  to  run  to  waste,  destroying 
property  along  their  course.  With  increase  of 
population  and  introduction  of  improved  varieties 
and  new  species  of  fruits,  the  value  of  the  products 
per  acre  must  steadily  rise  to  a  point  where  the 
construction  of  even  the  most  expensive  reservoirs 
now  projected  will  more  than  justify  the  outlay. 

CALIFORNIA. 

Excepting  Texas,  California  is  the  largest  state 
in  the  Union,  having  an  area  of  155,980  square 
miles,  or  a  little  over  three-fourths  that  of  France 
or  Germany.  It  includes  almost  every  variety 
of  topography  and  climate,  from  elevated  mountain 
masses  with  perpetual  snow  down  to  fertile  and 
well-watered  fields  and  to  the  barren,  torrid  deserts 
300  feet  below  sea  level.  The  most  notable  feature 
is  the  great  central  valley  of  the  state,  drained  in 
its  northern  part  by  the  Sacramento  River  and  in 
the  southern  end  by  the  San  Joaquin  River.  These 
rivers,  flowing  toward  each  other  from  opposite 
directions,  finally  merge,  their  united  waters  being 
poured  westward  through  the  Golden  Gate  into  the 
Pacific.  On  the  east  of  this  great  valley  are  the 


CALIFORNIA.  313 

lofty,  snow-capped  mountains  known  as  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  from  which  come  many  streams  tributary 
to  the  great  rivers  just  mentioned.  West  of  the 
great  valley,  and  between  it  and  the  ocean,  are  the 
irregular  groups  of  mountains  which  make  up 
the  Coast  Range.  Among  these  are  long,  narrow 
valleys.  To  the  north  of  San  Francisco  Bay 
these  mountains  are  for  the  most  part  humid  and 
well-forested,  but  to  the  south  they  are  dry  and 
support  only  a  scanty  vegetation. 

The  southern  part  of  California  is  a  region  dif- 
fering both  in  topography  and  in  climate,  and  has 
such  distinctive  features  and  interests  that  there 
has  resulted  an  occasionally  expressed  desire  on 
the  part  of  the  people  to  become  an  independent 
state.  The  southern  prolongation  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  curving  around  the  head  of  the  San  Joa- 
quin  Valley,  forms  a  barrier  between  Southern 
California  and  the  remainder  of  the  state.  The 
railroad  crosses  over  what  is  known  as  Tehachapi 
Pass.  Below  this  is  the  Mohave  Desert,  which 
extends  easterly  and  southerly  to  the  Colorado 
River.  A  lofty  range  of  mountains  borders  this 
desert  on  the  west  and  cuts  it  off  from  the  ocean. 
At  the  southern  and  western  base  of  these  moun- 
tains are  several  valleys  opening  toward  the  ocean, 
or  extending  to  it,  and  having  a  climate  such  that 
citrus  fruits  of  the  best  quality,  nuts,  and  various 
semitropical  plants  are  successfully  raised.  A 
dense  population  has  gathered  here  in  the  cities 


314 


IRRIGATION. 


of  Los  Angeles,  San  Bernardino,  Riverside,  San 
Diego,  and  in  many  towns,  and  the  well-distributed, 
though  small,  water  supply  has  enabled  a  develop- 


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FIG.  91.  —  California  compared  with   the  Atlantic  states  lying  in  the 
same  latitude. 


ment  of  irrigation  in  the  rural  districts  surpassing 
that  found  elsewhere  in  the  United  States. 

The  vast  extent  of  California,  with  its  surpris- 


CALIFORNIA. 


315 


ing  differences  in  climate,  must  be  borne  in  mind 
when  discussing   the   resources  of  the  state  and 


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FIG.  92.  —  California  compared  with  Old  World  countries  lying  in  the 
same  latitude. 

the  dependence  of  these  upon  irrigation.  In  the 
southern  portion  in  particular  all  development  and 
land  values  rest  directly  upon  the  ability  to  obtain 


316  IRRIGATION. 

a  water  supply,  while  in  the  northern  portion  dry 
farming  is  generally  successful  and  irrigation  has 
value  mainly  as  insuring  a  better  crop  or  a  higher- 
priced  class  of  products.  To  obtain  a  more  real- 
istic conception  of  the  extent  of  the  state,  Figs. 
91  and  92  are  given,  these  showing  in  outline  the 
state  of  California  as  placed  on  a  map  of  the 
Alantic  coast  states  of  this  country,  and  on  a  simi- 
lar map  of  Spain  and  northern  Africa.  In  both 
of  these  sketches  California  is  shown  in  its  true 
position  relative  to  distance  from  the  equator,  but 
in  Fig.  91  it  is  reversed,  or  turned  over,  so  that 
its  coast  line  will  coincide  nearly  with  that  of  the 
Atlantic  coast. 

By  reference  to  Fig.  91  it  is  seen  that  Cali- 
fornia extends  from  the  latitude  of  northern  Penn- 
sylvania down  to  that  of  South  Carolina  and 
northern  Georgia.  San  Francisco  corresponds  in 
position  fairly  well  with  Norfolk,  Virginia,  and 
San  Diego  with  Charleston,  South  Carolina.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  in  each  of  the  portions 
of  states  included  within  the  dotted  outline  of  Cali- 
fornia, there  is  now  a  population  nearly  equal  to, 
or  exceeding,  that  of  the  entire  state  of  California, 
which  is,  in  round  numbers,  1,500,000.  New  Jer- 
sey and  North  Carolina  have  each  nearly  2,000,000 
inhabitants.  Maryland,  with  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia, has  a  population  almost  identical  with  that  of 
California,  and  .eastern  Pennsylvania  far  exceeds 
either  of  these.  With  the  natural  resources  of 


CALIFORNIA.  317 

California  so  far  exceeding  those  of  the  eastern 
Gulf  states,  it  seems  incredible  that  such  great 
inequalities  of  population  continue  indefinitely. 
When  a  comparison  is  made  of  California  with 
the  Old  World,  as  in  Fig.  92,  the  striking  differ- 
ence in  population  is  again  brought  out.  Portugal 
has  over  5,000,000  inhabitants,  Algeria  has  nearly 
as  many,  and  Spain  has  over  18,000,000. 

The  methods  of  irrigation  and  the  habits  of  the 
irrigators  are  as  diverse  as  the  great  extent  of  the 
state  and  the  variety. of  climatic  and  topographic 
conditions  would  imply.  In  the  more  humid  por- 
tions of  the  north,  irrigation  is  not  practised  or  is 
regarded  as  something  exceptional  or  of  doubtful 
utility.  In  the  centre  of  the  state,  where  the  large 
rivers  pour  their  floods  from  the  Sierra  Nevada  out 
into  the  dry  valley,  great  canals  have  been  built 
and  water  is  lavishly  used.  South  of  Tehachapi, 
where  the  rivers  are  comparatively  small  and 
population  is  dense,  there  is  the  most  complete  con- 
servation of  scanty  supplies,  and  irrigation  is  re- 
garded as  the  highest  triumph  of  the  agricultural 
art.  Great  dams  have  been  built,  such  as  the 
Sweetwater,  Otay,  Hemet,  and  Bear  Valley,  for 
storing  floods,  and  expensive  cement-lined  ditches 
and  wooden  flumes  have  been  constructed  for  tak- 
ing the  precious  fluid  to  the  fields  with  the  least 
possible  loss. 

Among  the  foothills  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  valleys  gold  was  early 


3l8  IRRIGATION. 

discovered  in  placers,  and  these  were  worked  by 
means  of  water  taken  out  by  innumerable  flumes 
and  ditches.  With  the  decline  of  this  business, 
due  largely  to  the  so-called  anti-debris  law,  many  of 
these  ditches  were  used  to  irrigate  little  sidehill 
farms,  and  it  was  found  that  valuable  fruits  could  be 
raised,  particularly  oranges,  on  the  lower  hill  slopes. 
Thus  many  of  the  structures  originally  made  for 
mining  have  been  repaired  and  gradually  enlarged 
for  purposes  of  irrigation. 

The  greater  part  of  the  valley  of  California,  in 
spite  of  the  small  rainfall,  has  been  used  for  grow- 
ing wheat.  This  has  been  successfully  cultivated 
even  upon  the  adjoining  foothills.  The  large 
wheat  farms  cultivated  without  irrigation  are,  how- 
ever, being  gradually  encroached  upon  by  orchards 
and  by  alfalfa  fields,  as  water  has  been  brought 
out  from  the  mountains.  The  tendency  is  to  sub- 
divide the  great  holdings  of  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  valleys.  The  application  of  water 
makes  possible  the  creation  of  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  small  irrigated  farms  in  place  of  one  dry 
farm  devoted  to  raising  grains.  This  results  in  a 
decided  increase  in  population,  since  a  family  can 
find  support  upon  40,  or  even  20,  acres  of  land 
planted  in  orchards  and  vineyards,  while  ten  or 
even  a  hundred  times  this  area  may  be  devoted  to 
a  single  wheat  farm. 

Irrigation  construction  in  California  has  pro- 
ceeded with  relative  slowness  during  recent  years, 


CALIFORNIA.  319 

partly  because  of  the  effect  of  the  operations  of 
what  is  known  as  the  "district  law,"  passed  in 
1887,  allowing  the  creation  of  irrigation  districts 
in  some  respects  similar  to  municipal  organizations, 
but  having  a  single  object ;  namely,  that  of  deliver- 
ing water  in  sufficient  quantities  for  the  utilization 
of  the  lands  embraced  within  their  borders.  One 
of  the  principal  features  of  this  law  has  been  the 
authority  conferred  to  bond  the  district,  and  to 
dispose  of  these  bonds  for  the  purchase  or  con- 
struction of  irrigation  works.  Without  entering 
into  details,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  over  forty 
irrigation  districts  were  formed  and  bond  issues 
authorized  to  the  extent  of  millions  of  dollars. 
Through  lack  of  sufficient  safeguards  the  districts 
received  comparatively  little  benefit  from  the  dis- 
posal of  these  bonds  and  the  property  holders 
awoke  to  find  themselves  struggling  under  heavy 
debts,  with  little  or  no  improvement  as  regards 
water  supply.  Many  of  the  bonds  issued  are  com- 
paratively worthless,  and  discredit  has  been  cast 
upon  reclamation  methods  of  this  character. 

The  way  in  which  the  canals  lead  out  from  the 
principal  rivers  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  93,  which  shows  the  canal  system 
from  Kern  River,  California.  The  dotted  lines  are 
contours  and  show  points  of  equal  elevation,  the 
lowest  being  300  feet  above  sea  level.  The 
higher  canals  are  taken  out  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible along  these  contours,  in  order  to  cover 


320 


IRRIGATION. 


the    most    ground.       Other    canals    lower    down 
the   river   follow  down   the  slopes,    the   resulting 

r* 


Fl<;.  93.  —  -Canal  system  from  Krin  River,  California. 

arrangement  being    fan-shaped,   fitting  the  topog- 
raphy.    Water  is  usually  had  in  abundance  from 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  XLIX. 


A.     IRRIGATION   OF  VINEYARD   IN   SAN  JOAQUiN  VALLEY, 
CALIFORNIA. 


IRRIGATION   OF  ORCHARD   IN  SAN  JOAQUIN  VALLEY, 
CALIFORNIA. 


CALIFORNIA.  321 

these  canals,  and  is  somewhat  lavishly  employed, 
as  illustrated  on  PL  XLIX,  giving  views  of  the 
irrigation  of  an  orchard  and  of  a  vineyard.  For 
alfalfa,  with  its  three  to  five  cuttings  during  the 
summer,  even  more  water  is  employed  than  in  the 
orchards,  in  order  to  wet  the  ground  thoroughly 
after  the  removal  of  each  crop.  With  the  gradual 
increase  of  orchards  and  the  extension  of  land 
under  intensive  farming,  less  amounts  of  water  are 
being  wasted. 

In  striking  contrast  to  this  lavish  use  of  water 
is  the  economy  practised  in  Southern  California, 
where  the  little  rills  from  tunnels  driven  into  the 
hills  or  from  wells  are  carefully  guarded  and 
carried  into  pipes,  to  be  distributed  underground 
or  brought  to  the  surface  near  each  garden  plant 
or  orchard  tree,  as  described  on  p.  207,  under 
the  head  of  subirrigation.  The  economies  prac- 
tised in  the  southern  part  of  the  state  must 
ultimately  be  employed  even  in  the  great  valley 
with  its  large  water  supply,  for  this,  although 
impressive  to  the  eye,  is  far  short  of  the  needs  of 
all  the  good  land  which  can  be  irrigated. 

The  drought  of  recent  years  has  borne  particu- 
larly hard  upon  the  irrigators  of  Southern  California, 
where  the  supply  of  water  was  already  limited,  and 
many  enterprises  for  obtaining  water  have  been 
undertaken  which  otherwise  would  not  have  been 
considered.  Almost  innumerable  wells  have 
been  sunk  hi  the  country  about  the  vicinity  of  San 


322  IRRIGATION. 

Bernardino,  and  from  there  to  Los  Angeles,  these 
being  located  on  the  slopes  of  debris  coming  from 
the  canyons,  and  also  in  and  adjacent  to  the  stream 
channels.  Some  of  these  wells  have  yielded  large 
amounts  of  water,  and  in  a  few  localities  artesian 
conditions  have  been  found,  resulting  in  a  very 
valuable  contribution  to  the  wealth  of  this  part  of 
the  state. 

Not  only  have  ordinary  vertical  wells  been  con- 
structed, but  what  may  be  considered  horizontal 
wells  have  been  dug,  with  the  idea  of  intercepting 
small  amounts  of  water  which  may  be  progressing 
slowly  beneath  the  surface.  These  consist  of 
tunnels  run  on  a  slightly  rising  grade  into  the 
gravel  slopes,  or  even  into  the  rocky  walls  of  the 
valley  or  canyons.  Sometimes  these  tunnels,  after 
penetrating  the  solid  rock,  turn  and  go  beneath  the 
bed  of  a  stream,  in  the  hope  of  finding  in  the  deep 
deposit  of  boulders  and  cobblestones  some  water 
which  can  be  diverted.  As  a  result  of  this  under- 
cutting, several  controversies  have  arisen,  persons 
using  the  surface  flow  claiming  that  diversions 
from  the  pervious  material,  even  though  lying  far 
beneath  the  surface,  are  in  effect  an  unlawful 
taking  away  of  the  flow.  It  is  argued  that  the 
stream  cannot  continue  on  the  surface  unless  the 
underground  passages  are  completely  filled  with 
water,  and  that  by  draining  these  an  equivalent 
amount  is  sooner  or  later  taken  from  above.  This 
matter  is  of  importance  not  only  in  California,  but 


CALIFORNIA.  323 

elsewhere,  and  has  been  a  point  at  issue  in  an  im- 
portant lawsuit  over  waters  of  Los  Angeles  River, 
as  noted  on  page  235. 

The  results  attained  by  this  complete  conserva- 
tion of  the  water  supply  of  the  southern  part  of 
the  state,  and  the  utilization  of  comparatively  in- 
significant sources  as  well  as  those  of  considerable 
size,  are  shown  in  the  wonderful  increase  of  culti- 
vated area  and  the  high  degree  of  perfection  reached 
in  the  care  and  management  of  orchards  and  vine- 
yards. The  visitor  to  Southern  California  finds  it 
almost  impossible  to  conceive  that  the  tracts  now 
covered  by  trees  and  vines  were  only  a  few  years 
ago  a  bare  and  apparently  sandy  waste,  not  fit  even 
for  grazing  except  after  an  unusual  rain.  He  is 
further  incredulous  when  told  that  the  homes  of 
comfort,  and  even  of  luxury,  surrounded  by  palms 
and  almost  covered  with  flowering  shrubs,  have 
been  paid  for  by  the  products  of  these  small 
orchards,  and  that  families  are  making  a  living 
and  getting  ahead  in  the  world  by  the  cultivation 
of  fifteen,  or  ten,  or  even  fewer,  acres  of  land  which 
before  the  introduction  of  water  can  hardly  be  said 
to  have  had  any  value. 

Cities  such  as  Riverside,  Redlands,  and  Anaheim, 
and  innumerable  towns,  with  their  thickly  settled 
suburbs  stretching  out  along  the  lines  of  canals  or 
supply  pipes,  are  not  only  monuments  to  the  energy 
and  perseverance  of  the  men  who  founded  them, 
but  also  living  testimonials  of  the  value  of  water 


324  IRRIGATION. 

conservation.  The  system  of  supply,  now  grown 
to  large  proportions,  may  properly  be  classed  with 
the  wonders  of  the  world.  Surface  streams  have 
been  controlled  and  underground  waters  brought 
to  the  surface,  creating  a  volume  of  water  whose 
value,  measured  by  the  results  produced,  runs  up 
into  millions  of  dollars. 

One  of  the  greatest  matters  of  surprise  has  been 
the  success  attained  during  the  trying  season  of 
drought  which  culminated  in  1899  and  1900.  There 
had  been  for  a  decade  less  than  the  normal  pre- 
cipitation, and  for  two  years  the  rainfall  had  not 
reached  one-half  the  average  for  the  region ;  but, 
in  spite  of  misgivings,  the  water  supply,  especially 
that  from  underground  sources,  did  not  diminish 
as  would  have  been  expected,  and  the  numerous 
wells  and  the  tunnels  driven  into  the  hills  did  not 
appear  to  be  affected  by  the  scarcity  of  precipita- 
tion. The  extra  care  due  to  the  realization  of  the 
need  of  economy  resulted,  not  only  in  saving  the 
fruits  and  crops,  but  in  some  instances  the  yield 
was  actually  increased  over  that  of  seasons  when 
the  water  supply  was  abundant.  It  is  probable 
that  there  is  still  to  be  had  a  large  amount  of  water 
from  underground,  and  that  by  the  use  of  cheap 
power,  such  as  that  obtained  by  electrical  transmis- 
sion or  by  burning  the  crude  petroleum  produced 
in  large  quantities  in  California,  great  volumes  of 
water  may  be  pumped  to  the  surface  for  raising 
high-grade  fruits. 


CALIFORNIA.  325 

Not  only  has  the  underground  supply  not  shown 
any  notable  diminution  from  the  drain  put  upon  it, 
but  the  seepage  or  percolating  water  in  some  of 
the  springs  or  cienegas  has  actually  increased. 
This  is  especially  the  case  on  San  Gabriel,  Los 
Angeles,  and  Santa  Ana  rivers.  This  latter  river, 
rising  in  the  mountains,  flows  upon  the  upper  edge 
of  San  Bernardino  Valley,  the  water  being  all 
taken  out  for  irrigation  or  disappearing  into  gravel 
washes.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  valley,  where  the 
outlet  is  through  a  narrow,  rocky  pass,  water  re- 
appears upon  the  surface  and  a  perennial  stream 
is  formed,  as  shown  on  PL  IX,  A.  This  stream, 
instead  of  becoming  dry,  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected from  the  increased  use  of  water  in  San 
Bernardino  Valley,  has  actually  grown  larger,  and 
from  the  flow  of  about  25  or  40  second-feet  of  ten 
years  ago  it  has  risen  to  two  or  three  times  that 
amount.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  results  of 
more  complete  irrigation  of  the  valley,  the  gradual 
saturation  of  the  subsoils,  and  the  progress  of  the 
water  slowly  by  seepage  from  the  fields  where  ap- 
plied months  or  even  years  before  down  toward  the 
outlet  of  the  valley,  again  forming  the  river. 

This  careful  conservation  and  complete  devel- 
opment of  surface  and  underground  waters,  and  the 
conveyance  and  distribution  of  these  in  expensive 
conduits,  as  shown  in  PI.  L,  have  necessitated 
heavy  expenditures  and  the  annual  payment  of 
sums  which  seem  very  large  when  compared  with 


326  IRRIGATION. 

the  cost  of  water  elsewhere,  as  for  example  in  the 
San  Joaquin  Valley.  Under  the  Fresno  Canal, 
which  diverts  water  from  King  River,  a  water 
right,  or  privilege  of  purchase,  is  worth  about  $40 
per  acre.  The  annual  charge  for  water  is  only  65 
cents  per  acre.  This  is  very  cheap  even  for  this 
valley.  In  this  locality  the  water  plane  has  risen 
to  within  10  to  15  feet  of  the  surface,  and  very  lit- 
tle additional  water  is  needed  for  irrigation. 

In  contrast  to  these  conditions  are  those  in  South- 
ern California.  For  example,  under  the  Anaheim 
Union  Water  Company,  in  Orange  County,  water 
is  sold  at  $4.80  per  acre-foot  and  is  considered 
cheap,  but  the  company  is  reported  to  lose  money 
each  year  and  to  make  up  the  loss  by  an  assess- 
ment on  the  water-using  shareholders. 

At  Corona,  or  South  Riverside,  in  Riverside 
County,  the  charge  in  1900  was  $15  per  acre-foot 
of  water.  Owing  to  the  drought,  there  was  but 
one-half  the  usual  amount  of  water  delivered  dur- 
ing the  year.  This  supply  is  largely  from  a  pump- 
ing system,  and  the  charge  for  the  year  1900  was 
above  the  average,  owing  to  improvements  that 
were  made  during  the  season. 

Under  numerous  pumping  plants  near  Azusa,  in 
Los  Angeles  County,  water  has  been  sold  for  irri- 
gation during  the  years  1898  to  1900  at  from 
"  3  to  5  cents  per  hour-inch";  this  is  at  the  rate  of 
$18  to  $30  per  acre-foot.  At  Azusa  the  cost  is  $5 
per  acre  irrigated  from  the  Azusa  Canal,  which 


I/RRIGATION. 


PLATE  L. 


CALIFORNIA.  327 

diverts  water  from  the  San  Gabriel  River.  At 
Ontario  $10  per  acre  is  charged  each  year. 

At  Hollywood,  a  suburb  of  Los  Angeles,  a 
charge  of  10  cents  per  1000  gallons  is  made  for 
water,  or  $32.31  per  acre-foot.  The  land  is  used 
for  growing  lemons,  but  the  water  rate  is  too  high 
to  permit  of  large  commercial  success. 

The  annual  charge  for  the  irrigation  of  citrus 
lands  in  Southern  California  varies  from  $5  to  $30 
per  acre,  and  will  probably  not  average  far  from 
$10  per  acre  irrigated,  the  supply  being  usually  12 
inches  in  depth  of  irrigation  water.  In  addition 
there  is  about  15  inches  of  winter  rain.  The  citrus 
fruits  in  general  need  twice  the  water  required  by 
the  deciduous  fruits,  and  alfalfa  usually  has  more 
than  that  used  by  either.  Under  the  Gage  canal 
system  at  Riverside,  where  citrus  fruits  are  grown 
almost  exclusively,  and  where  the  soil  is  somewhat 
porous,  derived  largely  from  granitic  debris,  with 
a  good  slope  and  with  a  rainfall  of  6  inches  in  the 
winter,  there  was  applied  during  1900  about  2.2 
feet  in  depth  of  water.  This  was  an  average  for 
the  entire  system,  and  irrigation  was  practised 
every  month  in  the  year,  owing  to  winter  drought. 
Other  estimates  for  this  canal  are  given  on  page 
218. 

In  Redlands  the  duty  of  water  is  usually  con- 
sidered as  12  inches  in  depth  for  citrus  fruits, 
applied  during  the  six  months,  May  to  October  in- 
clusive, the  normal  winter  rainfall  being  16  inches. 


328  IRRIGATION. 

Under  the  Sweetwater  system,  in  San  Diego  County, 
1402  acre-feet  of  water  served  3800  acres  of  citrus 
fruits  from  May  to  November,  1899,  during  a 
drought.  Deducting  for  domestic  consumption  of 
water,  this  leaves  .28  foot  in  depth  applied.  The 
trees  survived  and  a  crop  was  gathered,  but  this  is 
regarded  as  an  extreme  case. 

The  importance  of  the  fruit  industry  to  Southern 
California  may  be  judged  from  the  statement  that 
in  1899  the  shipments  of  oranges  aggregated  nearly 
10,000  car  loads,  valued  at  $7,000,000.  The  assess- 
ors report  for  the  seven  southern  counties  over 
2,000,000  bearing  trees,  and  over  half  as  many 
non-bearing.  The  principal  orange-growing  locality 
is  Riverside,  which  produced  a  third  of  all  these 
oranges,  and  next  Redlands  and  the  Azusa  Valley, 
each  producing  about  10  per  cent  of  the  entire 
output.  The  orange  crop  in  the  seven  counties 
was  produced  from  about  48,000  acres,  or  75  square 
miles,  of  which  about  40  square  miles  contained 
bearing  trees.  The  first  cost  of  the  land,  including 
the  planting  and  care  of  orchards,  has  been  esti- 
mated to  be  $25,000,000.  The  profits  of  the 
grower  have  been  found  to  be  12  per  cent.  The 
orange  land  with  water,  but  without  trees,  is  esti- 
mated to  be  worth  from  $250  to  $300  per  acre, 
while  with  bearing  trees  the  price  ranges  from  a 
thousand  dollars  per  acre  up  to  double  that  amount 
for  groves  with  fine  location,  navel  trees,  and  first- 
class  water  rights. 


COLORADO.  329 

COLORADO. 

Among  the  irrigating  states  Colorado  stands 
next  to  California  in  the  amount  of  land  watered. 
The  crops  raised  are  decidedly  different,  in  both 
character  and  vakie,  owing  to  the  colder  climate, 
which  prevents  raising  the  citrus  or  semi-tropi- 
cal fruits  for  which  Arizona  and  California  have 
become  celebrated.  Large  quantities  of  forage 
and  the  coarser  staples  are  produced.  Various 
portions  of  the  state  have  acquired  a  more  than 
local  reputation  for  the  production  of  excellent 
vegetables  and  deciduous  fruits.  For  example, 
Rocky  Ford,  on  the  Arkansas  River,  is  known 
throughout  the  country  for  its  watermelons,  and 
especially  for  cantaloupes.  Greeley  and  vicinity 
have  set  a  standard  for  potatoes,  while  Grand 
Junction  has  attracted  attention  by  its  peaches. 
Although  equally  good  results  are  claimed  for 
other  rural  communities,  the  reputation  acquired 
by  these  localities  testifies  to  the  excellence  at- 
tained. 

Colorado  has  103,645  square  miles  of  land  sur- 
face, a  little  less  than  the  combined  area  of  the  six 
Xc\v  England  states  and  New  York.  Its  popula- 
tion in  1900  was  539,700,  or  less  than  a  twentieth  of 
the  population  of  these  seven  states,  but  its  natural 
resources  are  in  many  respects  incomparably 
greater.  The  state  includes  a  considerable  part  of 
the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  noted  for  the  valuable 


330  IRRIGATION. 

deposits  of  precious  metals  and  minerals.  It  ex- 
tends on  the  east  out  over  a  portion  of  the  high 
plains  which  rise  from  an  altitude  of  about  3000  to 
5000  feet  or  more  at  the  foothills.  These  broad 
plains  furnish  excellent  grazing  in  ordinary  years, 
and  occasionally  a  crop  of  cereals  can  be  produced 
by  careful  cultivation,  if  favored  by  the  occurrence 
of  fortunate  rains.  Dry  farming  has  been  at- 
tempted at  various  points  along  the  eastern  boun- 
dary, and  is  carried  on  with  a  fair  degree  of  success 
on  the  high  divide  which  lies  north  and  northeast 
of  Colorado  Springs.  As  a  rule,  however,  it  may 
be  stated  that  irrigation  is  essential  for  success 
throughout  the  state. 

The  plains  are  traversed  by  two  rivers,  which 
receive  their  main  supply  from  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains :  the  South  Platte,  flowing  toward  the  north- 
eastern corner  of  the  state,  and  the  Arkansas, 
farther  south  and  flowing  easterly.  Large  canals 
and  many  ditches  divert  water  upon  the  valley 
lands  and  adjacent  plains,  so  that,  during  the  sum- 
mer at  least,  the  beds  of  both  rivers  are  dry  long 
before  reaching  the  state  line. 

The  high  plains,  rising  gradually  toward  the  west, 
are  suddenly  intercepted,  nearly  half  of  the  dis- 
tance across  the  state,  by  the  foothills  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  by  the  main  ranges,  which 
rise  to  lofty  snow-covered  peaks  13,000  feet  and 
more  in  height.  From  the  front  range  westward 
the  entire  state  consists  of  mountains  and  broad 


COLORADO.  331 

plateaus  with  relatively  few  valleys.  Among  the 
mountains,  at  elevations  of  7000  feet,  are  a  number 
of  basinlike  areas  dotted  with  trees  and  known  as 
parks.  Here  natural  grasses  abound,  and  by  dis- 
tributing water  from  the  small  streams  over  the 
surface  large  quantities  of  forage  can  be  had. 

The  streams  which  flow  westward  from  the 
main  divide  unite  finally  to  form  the  Grand  River 
or  empty  into  Green  River.  These  join  to  make 
the  Colorado  River  of  the  West.  The  water  sup- 
ply is  large,  but  the  valleys  are  narrow,  and  as  a 
rule  there  is  more  water  than  is  needed  for  the 
agricultural  land,  so  that  storage  here  is  of  second- 
ary importance.  The  principal  problem  is  to 
lift  the  water  to  the  benches  or  mesas  along  the 
streams,  or  to  divert  it  by  means  of  canals  heading 
in  the  canyons,  or  by  tunnels  cut  through  inter- 
cepting rocky  spurs. 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  state,  at  an  altitude 
of  over  7000  feet,  is  the  broad  San  Luis  Valley, 
through  which  flows  the  Rio  Grande  on  its  way 
south  into  New  Mexico.  In  spite  of  the  altitude, 
and  consequent  cool  climate,  agriculture  by  irri- 
gation is  successfully  practised  for  the  production 
of  cereals  and  for  the  growing  of  alfalfa  and  other 
forage  plants. 

The  largest  irrigated  areas  in  Colorado  are  along 
the  Platte  and  Arkansas  rivers,  and  here  the  prin- 
cipal problem  is  that  of  increasing  the  summer 
supply  by  a  thorough  system  of  water  storage. 


332  IRRIGATION. 

The  canals  and  ditches  already  built,  taking  water 
to  land  partly  under  cultivation,  could  probably 
utilize  to  advantage  all  of  the  water  which  can  be 
conserved.  The  owners  of  these  irrigation  works 
have  been  gradually  enlarging  them,  building  pri- 
vate reservoirs,  and  adjusting  among  themselves  a 
system  of  apportioning  the  water,  so  that  the  scanty 
supply  may  be  divided  in  accordance  with  priori- 
ties and  with  various  equities. 

One  of  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  South 
Platte  is  Cache  la  Poudre  River,  which  supplies  the 
farms  in  the  vicinity  of  Greeley,  a  view  of  one  of 
which  is  shown  on  PL  LI.  The  summer  flow  of 
this  stream  has  been  increased  by  the  diversion 
of  the  waters  of  Laramie  River  (p.  178),  and  also 
by  the  building  of  a  number  of  reservoirs,  both  in 
the  mountains  and  out  on  the  plains.  A  compli- 
cated system  of  transfers  of  water  has  been  in- 
augurated, by  which  the  claims  of  one  set  of  men 
are  temporarily  transferred  to  another,  the  natu- 
ral flow  of  the  stream  being  traded  for  an  equiv- 
alent amount  of  stored  water,  and  the  reverse,  so 
as  to  utilize  reservoirs  which  lie  at  different  alti- 
tudes and  to  enable  the  storage  of  water  which 
otherwise  could  not  be  economically  handled.  Out 
of  these  apparent  complications  there  is  being 
gradually  evolved  a  system  of  local  water  control, 
embracing  the  entire  stream,  and  tending  to  do 
away  with  the  rigid  observance  of  priorities  of  right 
in  favor  of  the  largest  and  best  use  of  the  water. 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  LI. 


COLORADO.  333 

The  gradual  evolution  and  adjustment  of  water 
rights  on  the  Cache  la  Poudre  and  along  the  Ar- 
kansas is  to  a  certain  extent  typical  of  the  prog- 
ress in  other  localities,  where  some  of  the  lower 
canals  have  prior  rights  over  those  higher  up- 
stream. The  latter  are  located  in  such  a  position 
that  they  can  more  readily  take  the  water  as  it 
comes  from  the  mountains,  and  it  has  been  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  keep  the  head  gates  of  these  up- 
per canals  closed  in  times  of  scarcity  in  order  to 
force  down  the  proper  amount  to  ditches  below. 
To  assist  in  adjusting  the  various  difficulties,  asso- 
ciations have  been  formed  and  various  agreements 
entered  into.  One  of  the  chief  obstacles  to  full 
development  of  the  water  resources  lies  in  the  fact 
that  water  storage  has  been  begun  on  the  head 
waters,  not  for  the  benefit  of  all  concerned,  but  for 
one  or  two  canals,  thus  introducing  irritating  com- 
plications, and  uncertainty  as  to  which  portion  of 
the  water  is  stored  and  which  is  the  natural  flow. 
The  importance  of  public  ownership  and  control 
of  natural  reservoir  sites  has  been  mentioned  on 
page  177. 

IDAHO. 

This  state  has  a  land  area  of  84,290  square 
miles,  being  slightly  larger  than  the  state  of  Kan- 
sas and  a  third  greater  than  the  whole  of  New  Eng- 
land. The  population  in  1890  was  161,772,  thus 
averaging  about  two  to  the  square  mile,  as  com- 
pared with  a  density  of  from  20  to  50  persons  to 


334  IRRIGATION. 

the  square  mile  in  the  Eastern  states.  The  greater 
part  of  this  population  is  in  the  valleys  along 
Boise,  Payette,  and  Weiser  rivers  and  on  the 
head  waters  of  Snake  River,  and  also  in  the  mining 
towns  scattered  through  the  mountains. 

The  form  of  Idaho  is  peculiar.  Toward  the 
north  is  a  narrow  prolongation,  including  the 
mountainous  area  between  the  states  of  Mon- 
tana and  Washington.  The  broad  southern  end 
includes  the  greater  part  of  the  valley  of  Snake 
River  and  the  tributary  country.  This  is  mainly 
a  broad,  lava-covered  plain,  dry,  dusty,  and  barren, 
except  for  a  dense  growth  of  sage  brush  and 
similar  woody  shrubs.  The  lava  frequently  ap- 
pears on  the  surface,  the  rough,  angular  blocks 
giving  a  forbidding  appearance  to  the  landscape. 
A  thin  soil,  often  sandy,  covers  some  of  the  lava, 
but  where  watered  this,  like  most  of  the  soil  of 
the  arid  regions,  has  been  found  to  be  highly  pro- 
ductive. 

The  head  waters  of  Snake  River  are  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  Yellowstone  National  Park.  They  flow 
in  a  general  southwesterly  course,  out  upon  the 
lava-covered  plains,  bringing  vast  quantities  of 
sand  and  gravel.  Over  the  deposits  thus  formed 
the  streams  meander,  rendering  it  possible  to  easily 
divert  the  water  for  agricultural  purposes. 

Soon  after  leaving  the  mountains  Snake  River 
begins  to  cut  into  the  rocky  surface,  and  with  suc- 
cessive rapids  and  falls,  as  shown  on  PL  LI  I,  ./, 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  LI  I. 


B     CONSTRUCTING  A  CANAL   B 


IDAHO.  335 

it  works  its  way  downward  until  it  flows  at  a 
depth  of  1000  to  2000  feet  or  more  beneath  the 
general  level.  Continuing  in  deep  canyons,  the 
river  crosses  the  southern  end  of  Idaho  and  then 
swings  toward  the  north,  the  canyon  walls  giving 
place  to  broad,  undulating  valleys  where  the  Boise, 
Payette,  and  Weiser  rivers  enter  from  Idaho  and 
the  Owyhee  and  Malheur  rivers  come  in  from 
Oregon.  Here  agriculture  has  been  developed  to 
a  larger  extent  than  elsewhere  in  the  state.  Leav- 
ing this  open  land,  the  river  keeps  northward,  hav- 
ing cut  for  itself  deep,  gloomy  canyons  separating 
the  Blue  Mountains  of  Oregon  from  the  charac- 
teristically named  Seven  Devils  region  of  Idaho. 

North  of  the  Snake  River  plain  are  the  Salmon 
River  and  other  rugged  mountains  of  the  central 
portion  of  the  state.  From  these  a  number  of 
streams  flow  southerly  toward  Snake  River,  their 
waters  disappearing  in  the  pervious  lava,  and 
probably  reappearing  as  springs  in  Snake  River 
Canyon.  These  springs  are  almost  innumerable 
and  some  of  them  have  a  volume  of  several  hun- 
dred cubic  feet  per  second.  Within  the  moun- 
tains the  valleys  are  narrow,  and  agriculture 
is  practised  to  a  limited  extent,  mainly  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  mining  camps  of  this  rich  mineral 
region. 

In  the  eastern  end  of  the  state,  on  the  head  waters 
of  Snake  River,  where  the  altitude  ranges  from 
4000  to  5000  feet,  the  settlers,  mostly  Mormons, 


336  IRRIGATION. 

have  brought  large  tracts  of  land  under  cultivation. 
The  altitude  here  is  such  that  greatest  success  is 
had  with  alfalfa  and  similar  forage  crops  and 
with  small  grain.  Fruits  are  being  raised  only  to 
a  limited  extent.  Farther  down  the  river,  and 
especially  in  the  western  part  of  the  state,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Boise,  the  capital  city,  and  extending 
out  along  Snake  River,  fruits  are  of  consider- 
able importance,  orchards  of  large  size  being  de- 
voted to  the  production  of  prunes,  plums,  apples, 
and  pears,  these  being  in  addition  to  the  ordinary 
farm  crops.  The  altitude  here  is  from  2000  to 
3000  feet,  and  the  almost  continuous  sunshine  of 
summer  is  highly  favorable  to  the  production  of 
fine  fruits.  Large  and  expensive  irrigation  works 
have  been  built  below  Boise,  one  of  these  being 
illustrated  in  PI.  LIII. 

The  flow  of  Snake  River  near  the  central  por- 
tion of  its  course  in  the  state  averages  in  summer 
about  5000  second-feet,  and  ranges  from  a  low- 
water  flow  of  a  little  less  than  2000  second- feet 
to  ordinary  floods  of  50,000  second-feet.  This 
volume  of  water,  tumbling  over  cliffs  such  as  those 
at  Twin  Falls,  shown  on  PI.  LI  I,  A,  and  Sho- 
shone  Falls,  and  shooting  down  the  long  rapids, 
not  only  adds  to  the  picturesque  attractions  of  the 
country,  but  at  once  suggests  possibilities  of  the 
development  of  enormous  water-power.  Part  of 
this  has  been  made  of  use  at  American  Falls  near 
Pocatello,  and  at  a  point  southwesterly  from  Boise. 


GATION. 


PLATE  LIII: 
"~l 


WOODEN   PIPE    LINE   ON    PHYLLIS   CANAL,    IDAHO- 


IDAHO.  337 

By  developing  this  power  to  its  full  capacity  it 
will  be  possible  to  create  many  industries  and  to 
pump  water  to  elevations  which  cannot  be  covered 
by  existing  canals. 

The  waters  of  Snake  River  are  by  no  means 
fully  utilized  for  irrigation  purposes,  although  a 
considerable  number  of  ditches  have  been  con- 
structed, taking  the  water  from  the  river  at  short 
intervals  and  covering  land  on  both  sides  from 
Yellowstone  Park  down  to  American  Falls ;  yet 
these  have  not  notably  diminished  the  flow  of  the 
stream,  except  at  times  of  unusual  drought.  Below 
American  Falls  there  are  apparently  no  opportu- 
nities for  taking  out  water,  until  points  a  short  dis- 
tance above  Twin  Falls  are  reached,  and  below 
this  locality  again,  water  cannot  be  brought  to  the 
adjacent  upland  until  the  valley  widens  out  in  the 
extreme  western  part  of  the  state.  Even  here  it 
has  been  found  impracticable  to  divert  water  from 
the  main  river,  and  the  valley  land  has  been  irri- 
gated wholly  from  tributary  streams. 

By  the  construction  of  large  canals  heading 
above  Twin  Falls,  and  by  the  completion  or  en- 
largement of  other  projects  now  under  way,  it  is 
probable  that  the  summer  flow  of  Snake  River  can 
be  wholly  utilized  and  that  storage  on  the  head 
waters  may  be  necessary.  Such  complete  develop- 
ment will  mean  a  large  increase  in  the  population 
of  the  state,  and  will  bring  under  cultivation  many 
hundred  thousand  acres  of  vacant  public  land. 


338  IRRIGATION. 

The  principal  town  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
state  is  Lewiston,  situated  at  the  point  where 
Clear  water-  River  enters  Snake  River.  Here  the 
valleys  are  very  narrow,  as  shown  on  PI.  LIV, 
and  are  bounded  in  places  by  benches  upon  which 
some  water  can  be  taken  from  tributary  streams, 
or  to  which  a  small  quantity  may  be  lifted  by 
pumping.  Fruits  are  successfully  raised  in  these 
narrow  valleys  and  on  the  higher  lands  wherever 
water  can  be  had.  Dry  farming  is  practised  on 
the  rolling  uplands  (PI.  LVI),  wheat  being  the 
principal  crop. 

MONTANA. 

Montana  is  the  third  state  in  area,  being  ex- 
ceeded in  size  only  by  Texas  and  California.  Its 
land  surface  of  145,310  square  miles  is  nearly  as 
great  as  that  of  New  England,  New  York,  and 
Pennsylvania  combined.  The  population  in  1900 
was  243,329,  or  less  than  two  per  square  mile. 
This  state  is  the  most  northerly  of  those  lying 
wholly  within  the  arid  region.  In  spite  of  the 
general  lack  of  moisture,  there  are  a  few  areas 
among  the  mountains  where  crops  have  been 
raised  by  dry  farming,  but  as  a  rule  irrigation  is 
essential  to  successful  agriculture. 

The  Great  Plains,  which  extend  across  Kansas 
and  Nebraska  and  into  eastern  Colorado,  sweep 
northerly  and  westerly  around  the  Black  Hills  and 
Bighorn  Mountains.  Contrary  to  popular  concep- 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  LIV. 


CANYON   OF  SNAKE  RIVER  ABOVE   LEWISTON,   IDAHO. 


MONTANA.  339 

tions,  the  altitude  descends  toward  the  north,  the 
country  being  lower  in  northern  Montana  than  in- 
eastern  Colorado.  This  fact  is  emphasized  because 
of  the  commonly  expressed  opinion  that  water 
might  be  diverted  from  Missouri  River  and  car- 
ried out  southerly  along  the  upper  edge  of  the 
Great  Plains,  furnishing  an  abundant  supply  for 
this  vast  area.  It  is,  however,  impracticable  to 
divert  the  Missouri  River  to  cover  any  consider- 
able portion  of  these  dry  lands. 

Montana,  like  Colorado,  extends  from  the  Great 
Plains  westerly  across  the  Continental  Divide, 
fully  two-thirds  of  the  state  consisting  of  rolling 
lands  and  plateaus  broken  by  occasional  mountain 
masses.  Here  the  water  supply  is  scanty,  although 
this  part  of  the  state  is  traversed  by  two  large  riv- 
ers —  on  the  south  by  the  Yellowstone,  and  on  the 
north  by  the  Missouri,  these  uniting  at  the  east- 
ern border.  The  western  third  of  the  state  is 
mountainous  and  comparatively  well-watered,  these 
high  mountain  masses  furnishing  perennial  streams, 
necessary  to  the  utilization  of  the  low-lying  valleys 
with  fertile  soil  and  genial  climate.  The  great 
problems  of  the  development  of  Montana  relate 
to  the  possibilities  of  obtaining  water  for  the  vast 
extent  of  great  plains  away  from  the  mountains. 

The  ease  with  which  water  could  be  brought 
upon  land  and  the  presence  of  a  market  at  the 
mines  within  the  mountains  have  caused  western 
Montana  to  be  the  most  thickly  populated  and 


340  IRRIGATION. 

well-cultivated  part  of  the  state,  while  the  great 
eastern  plain  or  prairie  region,  with  its  almost 
boundless  extent  of  rich  soil  and  its  great  rivers, 
the  Missouri  and  Yellowstone,  is  almost  unsettled. 

The  most  important  agricultural  area  is  in  Gal- 
latin  Valley,  of  which  Bozeman  is  the  principal 
town.  Here  alfalfa  and  cereals  are  raised,  barley 
especially  being  of  superior  excellence  and  value. 
East  of  this,  and  along  the  Yellowstone  River,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Billings  and  other  towns,  are  numer- 
ous areas  under  cultivation.  Northerly  from  these 
localities  and  extending  across  the  state  are  various 
points  where  irrigation  has  been  introduced,  espe- 
cially in  connection  with  stock  raising,  water  being 
taken  principally  from  the  smaller  streams  which 
can  be  readily  controlled. 

Along  Milk  River,  which  flows  from  the  north- 
west into  Missouri  River,  settlement  has  pro- 
gressed rapidly  and  irrigation  has  been  attempted, 
but  the  supply  of  water  is  far  below  the  demands. 
To  remedy  this  condition,  surveys  have  been  made 
to  ascertain  the  practicability  of  diverting  the  water 
from  Saint  Mary  River,  which  receives  the  drainage 
of  a  part  of  the  snow-clad  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
flows  northerly  into  Canada,  being  separated  from 
Milk  River  by  low  gravel  ridges  of  glacial  origin. 
It  has  been  found  possible  to  bring  a  large  canal 
through  these  ridges,  restoring  to  its  eastern  course 
the  water  which,  until  prevented  by  glacial  deposits, 
presumably  flowed  easterly  across  the  plains. 


MONTANA.  341 

Mining  is  the  principal  industry  of  the  state,  this 
being  confined  to  the  mountains  in  the  western 
end.  Next  to  this  in  importance  is  stock  raising ; 
the  greater  part  of  the  state  is  devoted  to  this 
business,  the  great  herds  of  cattle  fattening  on  the 
open  public  land  for  the  Eastern  market.  Irriga- 
tion has  been  carried  on  largely  as  an  adjunct  to 
the  cattle  business,  in  order  to  furnish  hay  for  the 
winter  feed.  Proper  control  of  the  free  grazing  is 
one  of  the  great  problems  now  presented. 

The  importance  of  irrigation  is  steadily  increas- 
ing as  settlers  push  in,  and  the  open  ranges  are 
being  more  and  more  crowded  with  cattle,  horses, 
and  sheep.  The  resulting  overgrazing  necessitates 
occasional  feeding,  especially  in  winter,  and  this  in 
turn  calls  for  an  increase  of  irrigated  area,  in  order 
that  hay  and  particularly  alfalfa  may  be  produced. 
The  necessity  of  winter  feeding  and  the  greater 
labor  thus  involved  tend  to  reduce  the  large  herds, 
as  noted  on  p.  40,  and  to  increase  the  number  of 
small  ranches,  whose  owners  can  give  personal  at- 
tention to  their  cattle  grazing  on  the  surrounding 
lands. 

NEVADA. 

Nevada,  although  of  great  extent,  enjoys  the 
unenviable  reputation  of  being,  in  population,  the 
smallest  state  in  the  Union,  and  of  having  decreased 
rapidly  in  this  respect.  The  number  of  persons  in 
1890,  about  45,000,  has  in  ten  years  diminished  to 
a  little  over  42,000,  there  being  fewer  people  than 


342  IRRIGATION. 

in  Alaska  or  in  any  of  the  seven  territories  now 
under  the  control  of  the  United  States.  The 
decrease  in  population  has  resulted  mainly  from 
the  lessened  output  of  the  mines  and  neglect  to 
make  use  of  the  agricultural  possibilities. 

The  total  land  surface  of  the  state  is  109,740 
square  miles,  almost  exactly  that  of  Italy,  which 
has  a  population  750  times  as  great.  In  1900 
there  were  irrigated  510,000  acres,  most  of  this 
being  devoted  to  raising  hay.  A  considerable 
portion  of  this  half-million  acres  is  made  up  of 
lands  partly  overflowed  by  the  Humboldt  and 
other  rivers,  the  flooding  being  assisted  in  a  rela- 
tively small  degree  by  ditches  and  by  dams  placed 
in  the  stream.  In  point  of  cost  and  value,  such 
irrigation  is  by  no  means  comparable  to  that 
practised  in  many  other  states,  being  little  more 
than  an  attempt  at  assisting  nature  in  spreading 
water  over  the  surface  during  spring  floods. 

The  state  lies  almost  wholly  within  the  Great 
Basin,  a  region  from  which  no  streams  escape  to 
the  sea.  The  rivers,  flowing  from  lofty  mountains, 
continue  out  upon  broad  valleys,  and  their  waters 
are  finally  lost  in  extensive  marshes  or  open  lakes, 
the  evaporation  from  the  surface  balancing  the 
inflow.  In  former  geologic  ages,  when  the  rain- 
fall was  presumably  greater,  these  valleys  were 
occupied  by  large  bodies  of  fresh  water,  which 
discharged  probably  toward  the  north,  increasing 
the  flow  of  Columbia  River.  The  Great  Basin 


NEVADA.  343 

extends  easterly  beyond  the  boundaries  of  Nevada 
and  includes  a  large  part  of  the  state  of  Utah. 

On  the  western  border  of  the  state  are  the  high 
mountains,  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which  are  almost 
wholly  within  the  state  of  California,  the  boundary 
line  being  drawn  along  the  eastern  slope  below 
the  main  summits.  These  mountains  fend  off  the 
moisture  coming  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  as 
a  result  the  state  of  Nevada  is  as  a  whole  the 
driest  of  all  the  arid  states.  High  mountain  masses 
irregularly  distributed  over  the  Great  Basin  break 
up  the  surface,  and  from  these  flow  small  streams, 
the  larger  uniting  to  form  the  Humboldt  River, 
which  crosses  the  northern  end  of  the  state  from 
east  to  west.  The  other  important  rivers  are  the 
Truckee,  Carson,  and  Walker,  which  flow  westerly 
from  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

Because  of  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  country, 
the  sections  numbered  16  and  36,  which  in  other 
states  were  devoted  to  educational  purposes,  have 
been  in  the  case  of  Nevada  left  in  the  hands  of 
the  government,  and  in  their  stead  a  grant  of 
2,000,000  acres  of  public  land  has  been  made  to 
the  state.  Most  of  this  has  been  selected  by  cattle 
companies,  lands  being  chosen  in  such  a  way  as 
to  include  nearly  all  of  the  springs  and  smaller 
sources  of  water.  Thus  the  cattlemen  have  been 
enabled  to  control  practically  the  entire  agricultural 
area  through  the  ownership  of  the  water,  and  settle- 
ment has  been  retarded. 


344  IRRIGATION. 

The  problem  of  transportation  has  also  been  one 
of  fundamental  importance  to  Nevada.  There  is 
only  one  main  line  of  railroad,  the  Central  Pacific, 
controlled  by  the  Southern  Pacific  Company.  The 
managers  of  this  line  have  in  the  past  apparently 
regarded  the  space  between  Utah  and  California 
as  a  great  unavoidable  gap  to  be  bridged,  and  the 
development  of  population  in  this  space  has  been 
practically  accidental  as  far  as  the  railroad  is  con- 
cerned. Few,  if  any,  efforts  have  been  made  to 
facilitate  settlement,  and  local  traffic  rates  have 
been  almost  prohibitory.  Thus  it  results  that  the 
natural  aridity,  preventing  dry  farming,  the  aggres- 
sions of  the  cattlemen,  making  settlement  almost 
perilous,  and  the  unfavorable  attitude  of  the  rail- 
road, adding  to  the  cost  of  home  building,  have 
deterred  settlers  and  left  the  state  to  consist  mainly 
of  the  remnants  of  a  mining  population. 

The  Truckee,  Carson,  and  Walker  rivers,  flow- 
ing from  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  California  easterly 
into  the  valleys  of  Nevada,  furnish  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  water  supply  for  the  state.  In 
the  relatively  small  area  along  these  rivers,  adja- 
cent to  the  California  boundary,  are  the  principal 
towns  and  most  of  the  people.  Scattered  along 
Humboldt  River,  crossing  the  northern  end  of  the 
state,  are  a  number  of  small  settlements,  a  few 
outlying  mining  camps  being  found  farther  south. 
Stock  ranches  for  headquarters  and  supply  places 
for  the  sheep  and  cattlemen  are  located  at  remote 


NEVADA.  345 

points  near  springs,  or  at  the  mouths  of  canyons 
from  which  water  issues  upon  valley  land.  Here 
small  areas  are  irrigated,  mainly  for  winter  forage. 

The  development  of  the  state  will  be  possible  by 
constructing  reservoirs  on  the  tributaries  of  Hum- 
boldt  River,  and  even  on  the  main  stream,  and  par- 
ticularly on  the  head  waters  of  the  rivers  flowing 
from  California.  Interstate  problems  are  involved 
in  the  latter  undertaking,  but-  surveys  have  demon- 
strated that  works  can  be  built  at  feasible  cost  to 
reclaim  many  thousand  acres,  making  possible 
homestead  settlement  on  the  lands  now  valueless. 
The  reservoir  which  has  attracted  the  greatest 
amount  of  public  attention  is  Lake  Tahoe,  at  the 
head  of  Truckee  River,  and  it  has  been  shown  that 
by  holding  its  waters  back  by  means  of  a  suitable 
dam,  water  can  be  retained  for  the  irrigation  of 
thousands  of  acres. 

In  addition  to  the  reservoir  sites  occupied  in 
part  by  lakes  and  to  which  public  attention  has 
been  especially  drawn,  there  are  broad  valleys  in 
which  artesian  water  can  possibly  be  had,  and  also 
many  localities  scattered  through  the  mountains 
suitable  for  holding  water.  These  are  mainly 
small  valleys,  in  some  cases  formerly  occupied  by 
glaciers,  and  later  by  lakes,  which  in  course  of 
time  have  cut  an  outlet  through  the  lower  rims. 
A  comparatively  small  expenditure  of  labor  and 
capital  will  close  the  outlets,  and  by  this  means 
bodies  of  water  of  considerable  size  can  be  held. 


346  IRRIGATION. 

The  rain  and  snow  fall  on  these  high  mountains 
aggregates  from  30  to  40  inches  or  more  annually, 
this  being  sufficient  to  replenish  the  reservoirs  if 
constructed. 

NEW   MEXICO. 

New  Mexico,  although  well  within  the  arid 
region,  presents  many  contrasts  to  Nevada.  This 
results  largely  from  the  difference  in  population, 
and  the  way  in  which  lands  have  been  held  and 
agriculture  has  been  practised.  The  population  of 
the  state  consists  largely  of  Mexicans,  and  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  soil  is  almost  wholly  in  their  hands. 
The  territorial  form  of  government  still  prevails, 
although  the  population,  195,310  in  1900,  surpasses 
that  of  the  states  of  Delaware,  Idaho,  Nevada,  and 
Wyoming.  The  territory  is  three  times  the  size  of 
Ohio  and  has  less  than  a  twentieth  of  the  popula- 
tion. 

The  oldest  irrigation  works  in  the  United  States 
are  in  this  territory,  having  been  built  by  the 
Pueblo  Indians  or  their  Mexican  neighbors.  The 
average  size  of  an  irrigated  farm  is  small,  the 
lands  under  ditch  having  been  subdivided  among 
the  sons  of  the  family  instead  of  additional  areas 
being  brought  under  cultivation.  The  farmers, 
especially  those  of  mixed  Spanish  and  Indian  de- 
scent, have  followed  the  customs  of  their  fathers, 
and  show  little  energy  or  skill.  The  lands  are 
tilled  in  a  most  laborious  fashion,  largely  by  hand, 
and  the  returns  are  small. 


NEW   MEXICO.  347 

The  eastern  part  of  the  territory  has  been,  until 
recent  times,  the  paradise  of  cattlemen  and  of  out- 
laws, many  of  whom  have  taken  temporary  service 
in  the  retinue  of  one  or  another  of  the  great  cattle 
kings,  and  have  alternated  the  business  of  "  round- 
ing up"  cattle  with  that  of  keeping  out  settlers 
or  evading  the  officers  of  the  law.  Within  recent 
times,  however,  much  of  the  lawlessness  has  been 
broken  up,  particularly  since  the  introduction  of 
irrigation  along  Pecos  River,  the  advent  of  farmers, 
and  the  extension  of  railroads  from  the  East  and 
the  South. 

The  Rio  Grande,  rising  in  southern  Colorado, 
enters  the  territory  from  the  north  through  deep 
canyons.  These  widen  in  places,  allowing  room 
for  bottom  lands,  and  again  the  walls  die  down, 
forming  low  mesas.  The  proportion  of  open  land 
increases  toward  the  south,  and  here  are  the  prin- 
cipal towns  and  agricultural  communities.  The 
river  itself  tends  to  spread  out  over  the  bottom 
lands,  and  the  greater  part  of  its  water  gradually 
disappears  by  evaporation  or  by  diversion  into 
ditches,  so  that  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course, 
above  El  Paso,  Texas,  the  stream  channel  is  fre- 
quently dry.  There  are  very  few  large  canals,  but 
a  great  number  of  small  community  ditches  supply 
lands  held  by  the  Indians  and  Mexicans.  The 
origin  of  these  ditches  is  lost  even  in  local  tradi- 
tion, and  it  is  probable  that  many  of  them  were 
in  use  before  the  advent  of  white  men.  The 


348  IRRIGATION. 

waters  of  the  river  are  extremely  muddy,  especially 
after  spring  rains,  and  the  sediment,  carried  in  sus- 
pension, fills  the  ditches,  necessitating  frequent 
cleaning,  especially  of  those  having  slight  grade. 

The  development  of  the  resources  of  New  Mexico 
rests  largely  upon  the  control  of  the  Rio  Grande. 
On  the  head  waters  of  this  stream,  in  Colorado,  are 
a  number  of  large  canals,  the  capacity  of  these 
being  sufficient  to  take  all  of  the  river  at  that 
point.  The  seepage  and  inflow  from  small  streams 
maintain  the  river  at  a  moderate  volume  in  northern 
New  Mexico,  but  practically  no  water  penetrates  to 
the  southern  end  of  the  territory  during  the  irriga- 
tion season.  There  are  a  number  of  open  valleys 
along  the  course  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  on  its 
principal  tributaries,  where  by  building  large  dams 
great  quantities  of  water  can  be  held.  Several  of 
these  localities  have  been  surveyed. 

The  principal  storage  project  is  that  above 
El  Paso,  where  it  has  been  proposed  to  construct 
a  great  international  dam  to  regulate  the  flow  of 
the  Rio  Grande  where  it  forms  the  boundary 
between  the  state  of  Texas  and  the  republic  of 
Mexico.  The  periodical  drying  of  the  river  and 
the  shifting  which  takes  place  during  occasional 
floods  make  the  boundary  a  matter  of  great  un- 
certainty, and  result  in  continual  irritation  between 
the  authorities  on  both  sides. 

There  are  few  notable  irrigation  works  along  the 
Rio  Grande,  the  ditches  for  the  most  part  being 


NEW   MEXICO.  349 

small  and  having  temporary  dams  of  brush  and 
stone.  These  are  swept  away  in  time  of  flood  and 
must  be  replaced  after  the  spring  freshets.  The 
ditches  do  not,  as  a  rule,  extend  beyond  the  lower 
land,  and  the  terraces  or  mesas  along  the  stream, 
usually  having  better  soil,  are  not  as  yet  cultivated. 
A  considerable  portion  of  the  bottom  land  is  alka- 
line, and  many  small  farms  have  been  abandoned  and 
even  towns  deserted  because  of  the  accumulation 
of  earthy  salts.  Drainage  is  in  many  localities 
almost  as  necessary  as  irrigation. 

The  typical  Mexican  farms  consist  of  long,  nar- 
row strips  extending  from  the  foothills  to  the  river 
and  crossed  by  a  ditch.  The  peculiar  shape  of 
these  farms  is  due  to  the  fact  that,  in  dividing  the 
inheritance,  it  is  customary  to  give  each  heir  an 
equal  amount  of  the  hill  land  and  the  frontage  on 
the  ditch  and  river ;  the  result  is  that  these  tracts 
may  be  from  25  to  300  yards  in  width  on  the  stream 
and  a  thousand  or  more  yards  long,  extending  up 
the  slope  to  the  ditch  or  beyond  it  to  the  hills. 
This  causes  much  inconvenience  in  cultivating,  and 
is  accompanied  by  lack  of  economy  in  irrigating. 

The  ditches,  as  a  rule,  are  owned  in  common  by 
the  farmers  of  each  community,  and  one  of  the 
irrigators  is  annually  elected  superintendent,  or 
majordomo.  His  business  is  to  attend  to  all  nec- 
essary repairs,  regulate  the  distribution  of  water, 
largely  according  to  his  own  judgment  and  experi- 
ence, and  in  case  of  extensive  work  call  upon  all 


350  IRRIGATION. 

of   the  farmers  to  contribute   each    his  share  of 
labor. 

The  largest  irrigation  system  is  that  on  Pecos 
River,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  state,  sup- 
plying land  in  the  vicinity  of  Carlsbad,  formerly 
known  as  Eddy.  Here  dams  have  been  built 
across  Pecos  River,  forming  reservoirs,  the  largest 
of  which  is  known  as  Lake  McMillan.  From  the 
latter  a  canal  extends  along  the  river,  branching 
to  cover  lands  on  both  sides  of  the  stream. 

OREGON. 

The  western  portion  of  Oregon,  bordering  on 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  is  humid.  The  belt  of  well- 
watered  land  extends  easterly  to  the  Cascade 
Range,  which  forms  a  barrier  to  the  progress  of 
the  moist  winds  on  their  journey  inland.  About 
two-thirds  of  the  state  is  on  the  eastern  or  dry  side 
of  the  mountains,  and  in  this  portion  irrigation  is 
necessary  for  most  crops,  although  wheat,  barley, 
and  rye  are  successfully  cultivated  by  dry  farming 
on  the  uplands  around  the  Blue  Mountains  and 
near  the  Columbia  River. 

The  country  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  may 
be  pictured  as  a  series  of  broad  plains  and  mesas, 
covered  with  lava  of  various  ages,  from  that  out- 
poured recently  to  the  ancient  flows  whose  surface 
has  largely  changed  into  soil.  This  supports  a 
dense  growth  of  sage  brush,  and  also  juniper  near 
the  mountains,  these  being  intermingled  with  for- 


OREGON.  351 

age  plants.  The  vegetation  becomes  sparse  out 
on  the  broad  valleys,  but  nearly  everywhere  fur- 
nishes good  grazing. 

The  erupted  material  forming  the  plains  is  simi- 
lar in  many  respects  to  the  vast  sheets  of  lava  or 
basalt  covering  the  valleys  of  southern  Idaho. 
These  lavas  occur  around  the  Blue  Mountains,  and 
are  apparently  continuous  from  southern  Idaho  to 
the  Great  Bend  country  of  the  Columbia  in  cen- 
tral Washington.  Volcanic  cones  rise  from  these 
plains,  and  the  general  level  is  interrupted  in 
places  by  mountain  masses  whose  lower  portions 
have  apparently  been  buried  by  the  outpouring  of 
fluid  rocks.  The  altitude  of  this  land  is  from  3000 
to  4000  feet,  the  mountains  rising  to  8000  feet  or 
over.  The  most  important  of  these  are  the  Blue 
Mountains,  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  state, 
which  consist  largely  of  extremely  steep,  rugged 
peaks,  snow-capped  for  a  considerable  part  of 
the  year.  The  foothills  of  these  mountains,  at 
altitudes  of  from  5000  to  7000  feet  and  over,  are 
covered  with  timber,  much  of  it  being  pine  of  con- 
siderable value.  From  these  highlands  come  the 
streams  important  in  irrigation  development. 

Water  storage  is  highly  essential  for  the  growth 
of  agriculture  in  central  Oregon.  The  streams  are 
small  and  intermittent  in  character.  Reservoir 
sites  are  known  to  exist  on  them,  but  none  have 
been  surveyed.  Crooked  River,  which  receives 
its  supply  from  the  Blue  Mountains,  is  typical.  It 


352  IRRIGATION. 

has  spring  floods,  which  rapidly  subside  toward 
summer,  until  the  channel  of  the  stream  is  nearly 
dry.  By  building  dams  at  a  number  of  localities 
along  its  course  it  is  probable  that  the  summer 
flow  can  be  increased  to  an  extent  sufficient  to 
irrigate  many  thousand  acres. 

Similar  to  this  is  Silvies  River,  which  flows  out 
upon  the  northern  edge  of  the  Harney  plain  or 
desert.  Where  this  stream  leaves  the  canyon  it 
has  built  a  broad  delta,  through  which  the  water 
meanders  in  a  number  of  channels.  Much  of  the 
ground  is  overflowed  during  the  spring  flood,  and 
considerable  areas,  originally  marshy,  have  been 
utilized  as  hay  lands  by  slightly  regulating  the 
flow  of  the  stream  and  by  annually  cutting  the 
native  grasses  and  weeds.  The  quality  and  quan- 
tity of  these  are  greatly  improved  by  this  regular 
treatment.  The  area  of  valuable  hay  land  has 
been  increased  by  check  dams  placed  in  the  di- 
verging channels,  causing  the  floods  to  spread  on 
the  low  lands.  The  cultivation  of  more  valuable 
crops  can  be  made  feasible  by  enlarging  the  canals 
from  Silvies  River,  and  especially  by  insuring 
ample  water  for  summer  through  the  construction 
of  storage  works.  The  same  thing  is  true  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree  of  the  various  tributaries  of 
Malheur  River  and  other  streams  issuing  from  the 
Blue  Mountains. 

Where  a  sufficient  supply  cannot  be  had  from 
surface  streams,  it  may  be  practicable  to  obtain 


OREGON.  353 

water  from  underground,  particularly  from  artesian 
wells  sunk  in  the  broad  desert  valleys.  The  struc- 
ture of  some  of  these  is  known  to  be  favorable  to 
the  accumulation  of  water,  and  it  is  highly  impor- 
tant to  make  a  thorough  geologic  examination,  if 
necessary  by  the  drilling  of  one  or  two  wells  of 
such  depth  as  to  penetrate  the  recent  deposits  and 
definitely  determine  whether  flowing  water  can  be 
had.  By  so  doing  maps  can  be  prepared  showing 
the  depth  to  the  water-bearing  horizon  and  the 
probable  height  to  which  the  water  will  rise. 
This  is  true  of  the  broad  valleys  of  central  Wash- 
ington, as  well  as  of  the  Harney  and  Malheur  val- 
leys of  Oregon.  The  soil  of  these  is  very  fertile, 
and  in  many  places  the  forage  plants  furnish  good 
grazing ;  but  the  distance  from  springs  or  streams 
is  so  great  that  cattle  cannot  graze  except  during 
the  winter  season,  when  pools  of  water  are  occa- 
sionally formed.  If  a  supply  could  be  had  from 
deep  wells,  the  cattle  and  sheep  industry  would  be 
greatly  benefited  and  it  is  possible  that  considera- 
ble areas  might  be  irrigated.  With  improved 
transportation  facilities  there  will  be  opportunities 
for  making  many  farms  on  the  vacant  land  of 
central  Oregon. 

UTAH. 

This  state,  occupying  the  central  portion  of  the 
arid  region,  has  led  in  the  development  of  irriga- 
tion by  associations  of  farmers  tilling  small  areas. 

2  A 


354  IRRIGATION. 

The  average  size  of  an  irrigated  farm  is  less  than 
in  any  other  part  of  the  country,  and  consequently 
the  number  of  persons  supported  per  acre  is  great- 
est. This  has  been  due  to  the  peculiar  system  of 
organization  growing  out  of  Mormon  practices. 
The  excellent  results  attained  demonstrate  the 
practicability  of  industrious  pioneers  supporting 
themselves  and  attaining  prosperous  homes  on 
small  tracts. 

The  land  surface  of  the  state  has  an  area  of 
82,190  square  miles  —  over  ten  times  the  size  of 
Massachusetts  —  and  the  population  in  1900  was 
276,749,  or  one-tenth  that  of  the  latter  state.  The 
principal  part  of  the  population  is  on  the  narrow 
strip  of  land  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  east  of 
Great  Salt  Lake  and  of  the  smaller  body  of  fresh 
water,  Utah  Lake.  Agriculture  is  dependent  upon 
irrigation,  except  in  the  case  of  wheat  and  barley, 
which  are  raised  by  dry  farming  on  some  of  the 
higher  bench  lands.  In  localities  where  snow 
covers  the  ground,  it  has  been  found  possible,  by 
summer  fallowing  and  by  planting  hardy  varieties 
of  cereals  in  the  fall,  to  obtain  a  good  crop ;  and 
with  skill  gained  by  experience  the  area  thus 
planted  is  being  extended.  For  alfalfa  and  other 
forage  plants,  and  for  general  farm  crops,  as  well 
as  for  orchards,  irrigation  is  essential. 

The  water  supply  of  the  state  is  relatively  well 
distributed  in  a  number  of  creeks  and  small  rivers 
issuing  from  the  Wasatch  Range.  These  moun 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  LV. 


TUNNEL   OF   BEAR   RIVER   CANAL,    UTAH. 


UTAH.  355 

tains  rise  abruptly  from  broad  valleys,  and  receive 
upon  the  summits  a  considerable  amount  of  rain 
and  snow.  The  streams  have  cut  deep  canyons, 
and  as  they  issue  upon  the  plains  their  waters  are 
diverted  by  many  canals  and  ditches.  Nearly  all 
of  these  have  been  built  by  associations  of  farmers 
living  in  small  communities  on  the  bench  land  near 
the  mouths  of  the  canyons.  There  are  very  few 
large  structures  built  by  capital  obtained  outside 
the  state,  and,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  all 
investments  of  this  character  have  been  financially 
unsuccessful.  On  the  other  hand,  the  farmers, 
uniting  in  associations  and  furnishing  their  own 
labor  and  teams,  have  built  works,  some  of  them 
of  considerable  magnitude,  and  through  the  use  of 
these  have  increased  the  value  of  their  property  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  make  the  investment  highly 
remunerative.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  it  is 
the  owner  and  tiller  of  the  soil  who  has  become 
prosperous,  and  not  the  owner  of  the  irrigating 
system.  One  of  the  largest  works  in  the  state  is 
the  Bear  River  Canal,  a  portion  of  which  is  shown 
on  PL  LV. 

Growing  out  of  the  complete  church  organiza- 
tion of  the  people  have  come  methods  of  allotting 
and  distributing  water  which  have  proved  sufficient 
for  most  localities.  Controversies  occasionally 
arise,  but  these  are  usually  settled  by  what  amounts 
to  a  majority  vote  of  those  concerned.  There  is 
an  attempt  made  to  divide  water  by  priority  of 


356  IRRIGATION. 

time  at  which  it  was  put  to  beneficial  use,  but  the 
strict  regard  to  priorities  has  often  been  set  aside 
in  favor  of  a  more  equitable  distribution  during 
times  of  scarcity.  In  other  words,  priorities  have 
been  disregarded  in  favor  of  needs  of  men  owning 
orchards  which  would  be  destroyed  if  water  could 
not  be  had,  temporarily  at  least.  There  is  also  put 
in  practice  a  grouping  of  rights  as  described  on 
P-  293. 

The  Bear,  Ogden,  and  Weber  rivers  are  the  prin- 
cipal streams  of  the  western  part  of  the  state,  and 
receive  a  considerable  part  of  the  drainage  of  the 
Wasatch  Mountains.  The  most  notable  river, 
however,  is  the  Jordan,  which  flows  into  Great 
Salt  Lake  from  the  south,  being  the  outlet  of  Utah 
Lake.  The  latter  body  of  water  lies  at  an  eleva- 
tion considerably  above  Great  Salt  Lake,  so  much 
so  that  its  waters  are  taken  out  by  canals  covering 
the  valley  lands  and  extending  to  the  city  of  Salt 
Lake. 

Utah  Lake  receives  from  the  east  a  number  of 
large  streams,  the  most  important  of  which  is 
Provo  River.  The  ordinary  flow  of  this  and  other 
streams  is  fully  utilized  during  the  summer,  and 
extension  of  irrigation  is  dependent  upon  water 
storage,  for  which  there  are  a  number  of  favorable 
sites  in  the  mountains.  One  of  the  most  important 
developments  for  the  state  is  the  complete  regula- 
tion of  these  head-water  streams  by  the  construc- 
tion of  impounding  dams  and  the  control  of  Utah 


UTAH.  357 

Lake,  by  which  its  waters  may  he  drained  down  to 
a  small  extent  and  the  lake  made  available  to  the 
greatest  possible  capacity  for  lands  in  Salt  Lake 
Valley. 

At  about  the  centre  of  the  state  is  Sevier  River, 
which  flows  from  the  high  plateaus  and  mountains 
of  the  southern  part  of  the  state  northerly  toward 
Utah  Lake,  but,  before  reaching  it,  turns  abruptly 
to  the  west,  its  waters  finally  disappearing  in  a 
marsh  or  sink,  known  as  Sevier  Lake.  A  number 
of  important  towns  and  farming  communities  are 
located  in  the  valleys  along  this  river,  and  the 
water  is  as  fully  used  as  can  be  without  storage. 
Excellent  opportunities  exist  for  conserving  water, 
and  on  some  of  the  tributary  streams  small  reser- 
voirs have  already  been  built  by  the  farmers. 

The  eastern  side  of  the  state  is  drained  by  Colo- 
rado River  and  its  tributaries,  the  largest  of  which 
is  the  Green.  Near  the  head  waters  these  streams 
are  used  to  a  small  extent  on  the  lands  of  the  ele- 
vated plateaus  and  of  the  small  valleys  intersecting 
them,  but  the  general  character  of  this  drainage  is 
typified  by  the  Colorado,  which  flows  in  a  deep, 
narrow  canyon  without  any  bottom  land.  The 
greater  part  of  the  water  is  thus  lost  to  agriculture, 
although  it  may  be  of  industrial  value  in  the  future 
as  a  source  of  power.  If  any  of  it  is  to  be  used 
for  irrigation,  this  can  be  accomplished  only  by 
storage  and  diversion  near  the  head  waters,  before 
the  streams  have  cut  down  into  the  solid  rocks. 


358  IRRIGATION. 

This  river  escapes  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  through 
the  Gulf  of  California,  but,  with  the  exception  of 
this  drainage  area,  the  state  of  Utah  lies  wholly 
within  the  Great  Basin. 

The  western  side  of  Utah  consists  of  broad,  arid 
valleys  interrupted  by  sharp  mountain  ranges,  and 
has  the  desert  aspect  which  characterizes  the  Great 
Basin.  There  is  some  timber  upon  the  mountains, 
and  also  grazing,  but  the  valleys  are,  for  the  most 
part,  barren,  supporting  only  a  growth  of  sage 
brush  and  similar  plants.  The  difficulty  of  obtain- 
ing water,  even  for  cattle,  has  prevented  the  settle- 
ment of  this  country,  although  prospectors  and 
miners  have  made  temporary  homes  and  camps, 
some  of  them  important.  Artesian  waters  are 
found  in  many  parts  of  the  state,  especially  in 
the  vicinity  of  Utah  Lake  and  Great  Salt  Lake. 
It  is  possible  that  deep  wells  can  be  successfully 
sunk  in  some  of  the  desert  valleys. 

WASHINGTON. 

The  western  portion  of  the  state  of  Washington, 
especially  in  the  region  of  Puget  Sound,  is  noted 
for  its  fogs  and  heavy  rainfall.  East  of  the  Cas- 
cade Range,  however^  as  in  Oregon,  the  country 
is  extremely  dry,  except  near  the  Canadian  bor- 
der and  among  the  foothills  adjacent  to  northern 
Idaho.  Throughout  eastern  Washington,  on  the 
rolling  uplands,  and  southerly  across  Columbia 
River  and  around  the  flank  of  the  Blue  Mountains, 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  LVI. 


WASHINGTON.  359 

is  a  country  which,  though  possessing  a  distinctly 
arid  climate,  has  been  found  to  be  one  of  the  best- 
known  areas  for  raising  wheat.  The  soil,  resulting 
from  the  decay  of  basalts  and  lavas,  is  extremely 
rich,  and,  although  almost  ashy  in  texture,  has  the 
peculiar  property  of  retaining  and  transmitting  to 
the  plants  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  to  insure 
luxuriant  growth.  Broad  wheat  fields,  shown  on  PL 
LVI,  extend  in  every  direction  as  far  as  the  eye 
can  reach,  covering  a  land  which  has  been  con- 
sidered worthless  except  for  grazing.  The  water 
supply  is  very  scanty,  barely  sufficient  for  domestic 
purposes.  The  rivers,  like  the  Columbia  and  its 
principal  tributaries,  flow  in  deep,  narrow  can- 
yons, and  although  the  volume  of  water  is  large,  it 
is  impracticable  to  bring  any  of  it  to  the  tops  of  the 
adjoining  cliffs  upon  which  the  farms  are  located. 

In  the  valleys  immediately  east  of  the  Cascade 
Mountains  irrigation  is  practised,  especially  along 
Yakima  River,  which  receives  the  waters  of  the 
melting  snows  on  high  mountains.  It  flows  through 
a  number  of  valleys  in  succession,  and  many  small 
ditches  divert  water,  also  a  few  large  canals,  the 
most  important  of  which  is  known  as  the  Sunnyside 
Canal  (PI.  LVII,  A),  irrigating  land  below  Yakima. 
The  principal  crop  produced,  besides  alfalfa  and 
fruits,  is  hops,  the  climate  being  found  peculiarly 
favorable  for  these. 

Columbia  River,  which  flows  through  the  state 
from  Canada,  and  Snake  River,  its  principal  tribu- 


360  IRRIGATION. 

tary,  are  in  deep,  narrow  canyons  through  the 
greater  part  of  their  courses.  Along  their  banks 
are  many  wheels  designed  to  lift  water  by  means 
of  buckets  placed  upon  the  rim,  as  shown  on  PI. 
XLI.  These  make  possible  the  cultivation  of  small 
fruit  farms  on  the  narrow  strip  of  land  between  the 
river  and  the  foot  of  the  cliffs.  These  little  farms, 
being  sheltered  from  the  wind,  and  receiving  sun- 
shine and  warmth,  produce  fruit  of  high  quality, 
such  as  peaches,  pears,  prunes,  and  other  varieties 
of  plums.  These  are  transported,  mainly  by  water, 
to  the  local  markets  at  Portland  and  elsewhere. 

The  interior  of  Washington  is  in  many  respects 
similar  to  that  of  Oregon,  particularly  in  what  is 
known  as  the  Great  Bend  country.  Here  the 
streams  are  small,  not  having  a  mountainous  catch- 
ment area  ;  but  it  is  believed  that  water  conserva- 
tion is  practicable  on  some  of  the  coulees,  as  well 
as  on  the  Palouse  River,  which  flows  from  the 
highlands  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  and  on 
the  Pataha,  Wallawalla,  and  similar  rivers  coming 
from  the  Blue  Mountains,  making  possible  the 
reclamation  of  extensive  areas  of  vacant  land. 
Artesian  wells  have  been  sunk  in  some  of  the  val- 
leys, particularly  near  Pullman,  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  state,  and  in  the  Moxee  Valley,  east  of  Yak- 
ima  River.  Water-bearing  gravels  have  been  found 
beneath  or  interbedded  with  the  lava  flows.  An 
ideal  section  of  these  artesian  conditions  is  given 
in  Fig.  93,  prepared  by  Professor  Israel  C.  Russell. 


WASHINGTON. 


The  mountains  in  the  background  are  intended 
to  represent  the  far  side  of  a  lava-floored  valley. 
Sands  and  gravels  derived  from  the  mountains 
have  been  washed  into  the  valley,  and  from  time 
to  time  flows  of  lava  have  taken  place.  A  well 


HORIZONTAL  SCALE 


2  MILES 


VERTICAL  SCALE: 

IOOO 


2000  FEET 


FIG.  94.  —  Ideal  section  of  the  border  of  the  Columbia  River  lava  ad- 
jacent to  the  mountains. 

drilled  through  these  lava  sheets,  until  a  porous 
water-charged  bed  is  reached,  will  yield  a  surface 
flow,  provided  the  mouth  of  the  well  is  below  the 
exposed  portion  of  the  pervious  layer,  and  also 
provided  that  there  is  an  unbroken  impervious  bed 
both  above  and  below  it,  as  described  on  page  248. 

WYOMING. 

This  state,  because  of  its  high  altitude,  cool 
climate,  and  broad,  almost  desert  plains,  is  and 
probably  always  will  be  devoted  mainly  to  the 
grazing  industry.  Mining  is  of  considerable  im- 
portance, but  agriculture  is  relatively  unimportant. 


362  IRRIGATION. 

The  altitude  of  Cheyenne,  the  capital  city,  is  a  lit- 
tle over  6000  feet.  This  is  located  on  the  edge 
of  the  high  plains,  near  the  foot  of  the  Laramie 
Hills.  From  here  the  plains  continue  north- 
ward between  the  Black  Hills  on  the  eastern  edge 
of  the  state  and  the  Bighorn  Mountains  near  the 
centre  of  the  northern  part.  There  is  a  gradual 
decline  in  altitude  toward  the  north,  the  town  of 
Sheridan  having  an  altitude  of  about  3700  feet. 
Here  agriculture  by  irrigation  has  been  most 
largely  developed.  In  the  Bighorn  basin,  west  of 
the  mountains,  the  altitude  is  also  relatively  low, 
5000  feet  or  less,  and  the  water  supply  large,  so 
that  opportunity  for  the  increase  of  farms  is  good. 
The  area  of  the  land  surface  of  the  state  is 
97,575  square  miles,  or  62,448,000  acres.  The 
population  in  1900  was  only  92,531,  being  a  little 
less  than  one  per  square  mile.  The  average  size 
of  the  irrigated  holdings  is  large,  since  most  of 
these  consist  of  hay  farms  operated  in  connection 
with  cattle  ranches.  The  cost  of  water  is  corre- 
spondingly small,  as  developments  have  consisted 
mainly  of  ditches  for  bringing  water  out  upon 
meadows.  The  water  supply  of  the  state,  for  an 
arid  region,  is  not  only  relatively  large,  but  is  well 
distributed,  the  principal  rivers  being  the  North 
Platte  and  its  tributary,  Sweetwater  River,  receiv- 
ing the  drainage  of  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
state,  Powder  River,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Hi- 
horn  Mountains,  and  the  Bighorn,  on  the  west  side 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  LVII. 


A.    SUNNYSIDE   CANAL.    WASHINGTON. 


B.     FRUIT  ORCHARD,   YAKIMA  VALLEY,   WASHINGTON. 


WYOMING.  363 

of  the  same  range,  also  Green  River  in  the  south- 
west corner.  Some  of  these  are  of  such  size  that 
there  is  little  probability  that  the  waters  will  ever 
be  seriously  diminished  by  irrigation ;  but  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Bighorn  Range,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Buffalo  and  Sheridan,  there  is  already  demand  for 
water  storage. 

One  of  the  most  important  irrigation  systems  of 
the  state  is  that  in  the  vicinity  of  Wheatland,  north 
of  Cheyenne.  Water  is  obtained  by  a  tunnel  through 
the  Laramie  Range,  being  brought  from  Laramie 
River  to  the  east  front  of  these  mountains,  where 
it  is  distributed  by  a  number  of  canals.  The  ordi- 
nary flow  of  the  river  is  increased  by  a  storage 
reservoir  built  above  the  mouth  of  the  tunnel,  and 
the  available  supply  is  further  regulated  by  storage 
works  in  the  vicinity  of  the  irrigated  land. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

STATES   OF   THE   SEMIARID   REGION. 

THE  location  of  the  semiarid  region  has  been 
shown  in  Fig.  2  (page  14),  and  a  definition  has 
been  given  of  the  location  of  the  area.  There  are 
also  in  western  Oregon  and  Washington  narrow 
belts  which  may  be  designated  semiarid ;  but  the 
transition  between  arid  and  humid  conditions  in 
those  states  is  so  quickly  made  that  these  regions 
are  not  generally  recognized. 

There  has  been  no  careful  distinction  made  be- 
tween the  use  of  the  words  "  semiarid  "  and  "  sub- 
humid,"  and  they  are  considered  as  practically 
synonymous,  since  both  are  relative,  the  term 
"  semiarid  "  implying  a  little  drier  condition  than 
"subhumid."  As  shown  on  the  map  (Fig.  2),  the 
semiarid  region  extends  in  a  broad  belt  across  the 
United  States,  in  a  general  northerly  and  southerly 
direction,  and  is  included  mainly  within  the  states 
of  North  Dakota  and  South  Dakota,  Nebraska, 
Kansas,  Texas,  and  the  Territory  of  Oklahoma. 

FLUCTUATIONS    IN    WATER    SUPPLY. 

The  broad  belt  east  of  the  arid  region  and  form- 
ing the  debatable  ground  between  it  and  the  humid 

364 


SEMIARID    STATES.  365 

lands  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  presents  conditions 
so  nearly  uniform  that  it  may  be  considered  as  a 
geographic  unit.  No  definite  boundaries  can  be 
assigned,  because  of  the  fact  that  for  a  number  of 
years  in  succession  summer  rains  may  be  above 
the  average  and  the  vegetation  will  be  luxuriant, 
so  that  in  driving  across  this  land  it  seems  to  be 
a  perfect  flower  garden  and  a  paradise  for  cattle ; 
while  again  the  rainfall  may  be  deficient  year  after 
year,  vegetation  become  parched  and  almost  dis- 
appear, and  the  traveller  will  apply  to  it  the  old 
term,  the  "  Great  American  Desert."  Thus  it  has 
happened  that  one  or  another  of  the  early  pioneers 
has  spoken  in  glowing  terms  of  the  fertility  and 
beauty  of  these  high  plains,  and  others  with  equal 
sincerity  have  described  the  horrors  of  the  long, 
thirsty  drives  across  the  sterile  wastes. 

The  alternations  in  the  amount  of  moisture  are 
best  marked  by  small,  shallow  lakes  which  some- 
times dot  the  plains,  especially  toward  the  north. 
After  a  cycle  of  wet  years  these  are  found  scat- 
tered here  and  there ;  but  they  disappear  again, 
and  leave  no  trace  of  their  existence  except  by 
muddy  flats  or  stretches  of  hard-baked  adobe. 
Another  way  of  describing  the  conditions  is  to 
say  that  the  arid  conditions  at  times  creep  down 
the  slopes  of  the  high  plains  and  extend  far  east- 
ward, and  again  retreat  to  the  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  swinging  backward  and  forward  with- 
out any  known  rule  or  regularity.  As  the  soil  is 


366  IRRIGATION. 

very  fertile,  there  is  constant  temptation  for  the 
settler  to  push  westward  from  the  humid  East  dur- 
ing seasons  of  abundant  rainfall,  with  the  result 
that  after  he  has  begun  to  make  a  home  he  is  over- 
taken by  the  reverse  swing  of  climatic  conditions, 
and  suffers  from  successive  droughts.  These  usu- 
ally force  him  to  abandon  his  farm  and  improve- 
ments, through  continual  loss  of  crops. 

This  peculiar  condition  of  rich  soil  and  fickle 
rainfall  is  common  to  all  regions  of  the  globe 
where  great  famines  have  occurred.  The  ex- 
treme productiveness  of  the  soil  after  a  heavy  rain 
encourages  an  extension  of  agriculture  and  a  gen- 
eral lack  of  thrift,  so  that  often  when  the  crops  do 
fail  population  has  increased  rapidly  and  little  pro- 
vision has  been  made  for  meeting  continued  losses. 
In  the  popular  mind  nearly  every  probable  and  im- 
probable cause  has  been  assigned  for  this  change 
of  climatic  conditions,  and  with  limited  range  of 
observation  it  has  sometimes  been  assumed  that 
the  rainfall  is  continuously  increasing  or  diminish- 
ing. By  selecting  periods  of  five  or  even  ten  years 
it  has  been  possible  to  support  either  theory. 

It  has  been  for  the  interest  of  speculators  in 
land  and  of  transportation  companies  to  adopt  the 
theory  of  gradual  increase  of  available  moisture 
on  the  Great  Plains,  and  the  results  attained  from 
about  1880  to  1886  seemed  to  support  the  conclu- 
sions. It  was  asserted  that  the  rainfall  was  increas- 
ing as  settlement  advanced  westward,  or,  in  oilier 


RAIN-BELTERS.  367 

words,  that  rain  came  with  the  breaking  of  the  sod, 
the  building  of  railroads,  telegraph  lines,  and  other 
works.  The  people  who  adopted  this  theory  were 
locally  known  as  "  rain-belters."  They  showed  their 
confidence  in  the  theory  by  taking  up  land  in 
advance  of  permanent  settlement,  far  out  on 
the  plains,  confidently  believing  that  the  rain-belt 
would  reach  them  before  long.  They  were  disap- 
pointed, however,  and  as  year  after  year  rolled  by 
without  perceptible  increase  in  moisture,  and  with 
continually  recurring  losses  of  crops,  they  became 
discouraged  or  literally  starved  out.  The  homes  of 
some  of  the  rain-belters  are  shown  on  Pis.  I,  III, 
and  LIX,  A. 

There  has  been  a  succession  of  waves  of  settle- 
ment following  years  of  unusual  rainfall,  and  time 
and  again  men  have  pushed  forward,  getting  a 
foothold  and  raising  one  or  two  crops,  and  then 
dropping  back.  This  is  shown  by  the  statistics  of 
population  of  western  Kansas,  the  numbers  rising 
and  falling  through  series  of  years. 

One  of  the  results  of  climatic  oscillation  in  the 
subhumid  region,  and  of  the  ruin  wrought  by  lack 
of  knowledge  of  the  facts,  was  the  speculation  in 
Western  mortgages,  which  affected  not  merely  the 
plains  region,  but  also  citizens  resident  in  all  parts 
of  New  England  and  the  East.  As  the  rain-belters 
marched  triumphantly  westward,  they  found  that 
their  movements  were  facilitated  by  companies 
formed  to  place  loans  and  take  mortgages  on  real 


368  IRRIGATION. 

estate.  The  profits  of  these  loan  agencies  became 
so  great  that  large  numbers  of  them  were  formed, 
and  competition  for  business  became  so  keen  that 
ordinary  prudence  was  thrown  aside,  and  the  settler 
no  longer  sought  for  a  person  to  make  small  ad- 
vances of  capital  by  which  he  could  procure  tools 
and  seeds.  No  sooner  had  he  located  than  rival 
agents  hunted  him  up,  to  bid  against  one  another 
for  the  privilege  of  placing  a  mortgage  upon  his 
farm.  These  mortgages,  being  for  a  few  hundred 
dollars,  were  then  peddled  out  to  small  investors 
throughout  the  country,  being  purchased  by  school- 
teachers, clerks,  and  mechanics,  who  had  laid  up 
a  small  amount  of  money  and  were  seeking  the 
largest  possible  interest. 

Although  the  crop  from  one  of  these  farms 
would,  in  a  year  of  abundant  rainfall,  pay  off  the 
mortgage,  this  was  not  done,  because  of  the  desire 
of  the  settler  to  purchase  more  farm  implements  or 
obtain  additional  land;  and  when  a  series  of  dry 
years  came  and  no  crops  were  had  season  after 
season,  the  landowner,  appreciating  that  the  mort- 
gage and  interest  amounted  to  more  than  the  farm 
was  worth,  simply  abandoned  everything,  and  thus 
whole  counties  were  practically  deserted ;  about 
the  only  inducement  to  maintain  the  county  organi- 
zation being  the  fees  obtained  by  the  officials  in 
connection  with  the  mortgage  business.  This 
business  has  continued  because  of  the  fact  that 
Eastern  mortgagees,  not  knowing  the  true  condi- 


MORTGAGES.  369 

tions,  have  often  foreclosed,  or  transferred  their 
interest,  or  continued  to  pay  taxes  in  the  vain 
hope  that  the  land  may  some  time  be  worth  what 
has  been  loaned. 

It  should  not  be  assumed  that  every  one  has  left 
the  subhumid  region ;  on  the  contrary,  among  those 
who  have  tried  their  fortunes  there  are  some  who 
have  clung  with  great  tenacity,  and  who  have  been 
able  to  adapt  themselves  and  their  methods  of 
farming  to  the  conditions.  They  have  introduced 
irrigation,  as  shown  on  Pis.  II.  and  IV.,  or  have 
practised  tilling  of  the  soil  in  such  a  way  as  to 
conserve  the  moisture,  and  have  usually  been  able 
to  cut  and  stack  sufficient  hay  to  maintain  their 
cattle  throughout  the  short  winter.  The  vacant 
public  lands  and  the  abandoned  holdings  about 
them  have  furnished  ample  grazing  for  small 
herds,  and  by  planting  sorghum  and  hardy  varie- 
ties of  small  grains  they  have  been  sure  of  a  fair 
return  for  their  labor.  When  the  years  of  abun- 
dant rainfall  occurred,  they  have  sometimes  been 
able  to  secure  a  large  crop  of  wheat,  or  even  corn, 
whose  value  has  reimbursed  them  for  all  of  the 
previous  outlay. 

These  sturdy  pioneers  have  sometimes  displayed 
great  ingenuity  in  utilizing  the  resources  about 
them ;  such,  for  example,  as  seen  in  the  construc- 
tion of  homemade  windmills,  shown  on  PL  XLII 
and  described  on  page  266.  By  means  of  these 
mills  water  has  been  pumped  to  the  surface  and 

2B 


3/0  IRRIGATION. 

held  in  small  reservoirs,  or  dams  have  been  built 
across  ravines,  impounding  storm  waters.  The 
experiments  and  success  attained  have  shown  that 
it  is  possible  for  farmers  of  a  high  order  of  intelli- 
gence and  perseverance,  not  only  to  make  a  living, 
but  even  to  secure  a  competence,  in  this  region 
of  uncertain  rainfall. 

Although  it  is  now  well  known  that  the  amount 
of  rainfall  cannot  be  influenced  by  human  agencies, 
yet  it  is  possible  to  greatly  increase  the  available 
supply  for  plant  life  by  storing  the  water  in  the 
soil  through  careful  cultivation  and  by  preventing 
evaporation  losses  through  planting  wind  breaks. 
It  is  estimated  that  every  foot  of  height  of  com- 
pact trees  protects  I  rod  of  ground;  hence  a  Lom- 
bardy  poplar  wind  break  of  an  average  height  of 
60  feet,  properly  set  out,  has  a  beneficial  influ- 
ence extending  practically  1000  feet  to  the  lee- 
ward. For  these  breaks  poplars,  cottonwoods,  or 
locusts  are  serviceable.  By  practising  all  these 
economies,  shutting  off  the  wind  as  much  as  possi- 
ble from  the  fields  and  using  it  for  pumping  water, 
storing  the  scanty  supply  in  reservoirs  or  in  the 
soil  itself,  the  observing,  careful  farmer  wins  suc- 
cess where  others  fail. 

For  convenience  the  boundary  of  the  subhumid 
or  semiarid  region  has  been  placed  on  the  east 
at  the  97th  meridian  and  on  the  west  at  about  the 
roist.  It  is  a  region  of  extremely  fertile  soil,  the 
erratic  rainfall  being  followed  by  rapid  growth  of 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  LV1II. 


A.     IRRIGATION   IN   SOUTH    DAKOTA    BY  USE    OF  WATER    FROM 
AN   ARTESIAN   WELL. 


B.     STO 


RING  PLANT  ON   UPLAND. 


MISSOURI    RIVER.  371 

grasses  and  other  plants  valuable  for  forage. 
The  ground  is  almost  everywhere  covered  with  a 
tough  sod  (PI.  LXII),  which  thins  out  toward  the 
arid  region,  gradually  breaking  into  small  patches 
and  finally  forming  what  is  known  as  bunch  grass, 
each  tuft  being  surrounded  by  bare  soil. 

The  water  supply  of  this  region  is  for  the  most 
part  concentrated  in  a  few  rivers,  from  which  irri- 
gation canals  can  be  taken.  The  principal  excep- 
tion to  this  is  the  Missouri  River,  which  flows 
across  the  northern  end  of  the  subhumid  belt. 
The  fall  of  this  stream  is  so  slight  that  it  is  im- 
practicable to  divert  water  by  gravity.  Some  of 
it  may  be  had  by  pumping,  but  the  increase  in 
value  of  the  bottom  lands  would  not  be  sufficient 
to  justify  the  expense,  as  many  of  these  are  kept 
moist  by  seepage.  The  bench  lands,  having  in 
general  a  better  soil,  cannot  be  reached  by  a  canal 
from  the  Missouri  River. 

Southward  from  the  Missouri,  in  North  Dakota, 
the  principal  rivers  are  its  tributaries  in  South 
Dakota,  also  the  Platte  in  Nebraska,  the  Repub- 
lican, Smoky  Hill,  and  Arkansas  in  Kansas,  and 
the  Canadian  in  Texas  and  Oklahoma.  The 
Platte  and  Arkansas  have  cut  their  way  entirely 
across  the  subhumid  region  and  receive  the  drain- 
age from  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Some  of  this 
water  succeeds  in  finding  its  way  from  the  moun- 
tains to  the  Mississippi  River,  but  during  the 
summer  the  entire  supply  is  needed  for  lands 


3/2  IRRIGATION. 

within  the  arid  region,  and  for  several  hundred 
miles  these  streams  are  nearly  or  quite  dry. 
Extensive  irrigation  systems  have  been  built  in 
western  Kansas,  notably  in  the  vicinity  of  Garden ; 
but  the  chances  of  obtaining  water  are  so  pre- 
carious that  the  owners  of  the  canals  have  become 
discouraged,  and  neglect  to  keep  them  in  repair. 

During  the  time  of  abundant  rainfall  irrigating 
ditches  in  the  subhumid  region  fall  into  disuse,  and 
the  irrigator,  for  lack  of  practice,  becomes  indif- 
ferent. As  a  result,  when  the  rains  no  longer 
come,  and  day  after  day  passes  without  relief, 
and  attention  is  drawn  to  the  necessity  of  irriga- 
tion, it  is  usually  found  that,  even  if  there  is  water 
in  the  river,  there  are  a  number  of  repairs  to  be 
made  to  the  canals  and  the  flumes  are  leaking  or 
defective ;  and,  in  short,  before  water  can  be 
brought  to  the  field  the  crop  has  already  been 
greatly  injured  or  destroyed.  It  is  extremely  difficult 
for  a  community  raising  an  occasional  good  crop 
without  irrigation  to  maintain  the  necessary  works 
and  expend  labor  in  repairs  when  there  is  no 
immediate  necessity  for  an  outlay,  and  when  opti- 
mistic members  of  the  community  claim  that  the 
rainfall  is  increasing  and  irrigation  ditches  are  no 
longer  needed. 

There  is  a  strong  opposition  to  letting  the  fact 
be  known  that  a  certain  region  needs  irrigation. 
The  short-sighted  policy  is  practised  of  attempting 
to  conceal  the  deficiencies  of  climate  from  the 


ARTESIAN   WELLS.  373 

would-be  purchasers  or  investors,  and,  instead  of 
regarding  the  possibilities  of  irrigation  in  the  light 
of  an  insurance  to  the  crops,  it  is  considered  as  a 
burden  to  be  avoided.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
most  of  the  newcomers  in  the  semiarid  region  have 
practised  farming  in  humid  localities,  and,  not 
having  had  experience  in  irrigation,  are  afraid  or 
suspicious  of  any  proposition  necessitating  the  arti- 
ficial application  of  water  to  the  soil ;  thus  the 
attempt  is  sometimes  made  to  discourage  any 
movement  in  favor  of  irrigation  construction,  for 
fear  of  frightening  away  the  men  who  are  seeking 
homes.  As  the  public  becomes  better  enlightened 
upon  the  subject,  it  will  come  to  be  generally 
known  and  acknowledged  that  irrigation  greatly 
benefits  a  locality. 

ARTESIAN    AND    DEEP    WELLS. 

The  streams  which  cross  the  semiarid  region 
flow  in  a  general  easterly  direction,  and  occupy 
narrow  valleys  trenched  in  the  plains.  A  traveller 
driving  across  country  in  a  northerly  or  southerly 
direction  finds  a  rapid  alternation  of  plain  and 
ravine ;  but  if  he  is  going  east  or  west  on  the  flat 
uplands  between  the  streams,  the  country  will 
appear  to  his  eye  as  perfectly  level,  the  narrow 
valleys  not  being  visible.  Out  on  these  broad  ex- 
panses, unscarred  by  running  water,  are  the  best 
soils,  surpassing  even  those  of  the  bottom  lands. 
For  these  areas  the  problem  of  water  supply  is 


374  IRRIGATION. 

serious,  and  it  is  often  impossible  to  find  any 
feasible  relief  from  drought.  In  many  localities, 
however,  wells  having  a  depth  of  from  100  to  300 
feet,  as  shown  on  PI.  LVIII,  B,  obtain  an  ample 
supply,  and  in  other  places  artesian  conditions 
have  been  found  to  exist,  water  flowing  over  the 
surface  in  a  quantity  sufficient  not  only  for  stock, 
but  even  for  the  irrigation  of  small  farms,  as 
shown  on  PI.  LVIII,  A. 

The  principal  developed  artesian  area  is  in  the 
James  River  Valley  of  South  Dakota.  Here  are 
a  considerable  number  of  wells  ranging  in  depth 
from  1 200  to  1 500  feet,  some  of  them,  as  shown  on 
PL  XL,  discharging  volumes  of  water  of  one  cubic 
foot  per  second,  or  even  more,  as  described  under 
the  head  of  Artesian  Wells,  p.  246.  These  receive 
water  from  what  is  known  as  the  Dakota  sand- 
stone, a  thick  rock,  sometimes  merging  into  shale, 
but  usually  consisting  of  coarse,  permeable  sand- 
stone. It  outcrops  around  the  Black  Hills  and 
along  the  front  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
extends  easterly  under  the  plains  at  depths  of 
from  1000  to  2000  feet  or  more,  as  shown  in  Figs. 
79  and  80  (p.  250),  approaching  the  surface  in 
the  eastern  part  of  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  the 
Dakotas.  It  outcrops  along  the  Arkansas  Valley 
and  appears  on  the  surface  near  Coolidge  in  west- 
ern Kansas.  Wherever  penetrated,  it  yields  an 
abundant  supply  of  good  water,  although  at  a 
few  places  it  is  reported  that  the  water  is  con- 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  LIX. 


A.     SETTLER   TRYING   TO   CULTIVATE   WITHOUT   IRRIGATION. 


B.     WATER   FOR   IRRIGATION   PROVIDED   BY   WIND 


DAKOTA   SANDSTONE.  375 

taminated  by  salt,  probably  from  some  other 
horizon. 

The  position  and  depth  of  the  Dakota  sandstone 
have  been  mapped  around  its  edges,  but  in  the  centre 
of  the  plains  region  the  depth  beneath  the  surface 
to  the  sandstone  is  unknown.  It  is  highly  desira- 
ble to  drill  one  or  two  deep  wells,  determining  the 
depth,  character,  and  thickness  of  the  Dakota 
sandstone,  and  ascertaining  whether  it  or  other 
sandstones  contain  water  under  sufficient  press- 
ure to  rise  to  the  general  level  of  the  country. 
It  is  possible  that,  by  the  complete  development  of 
artesian  wells,  the  opportunities  for  making  homes 
can  be  greatly  increased. 

Wherever  wells  have  been  dug  or  drilled  in  this 
area  it  is  the  custom  to  erect  windmills,  as  shown 
on  PI.  LIX,  B.  A  great  number  of  these  have 
been  built,  as  the  wind  is  blowing  almost  contin- 
ually, with  a  force  sufficient  to  operate  ordinary 
pumps.  Many  thousands  of  them  are  to  be  seen, 
of  all  forms  and  sizes,  from  the  clumsy,  old-fash- 
ioned Dutch  mill  shown  on  PL  LXI  and  the  odd 
but  effective  homemade  devices  shown  on  PL  XLII 
to  the  light,  rapid-running  steel  mill  of  latest  im- 
proved pattern  shown  on  PL  XLII  I.  An  in- 
definite extension  and  multiplication  of  these  is 
possible,  as  the  power  of  the  wind  is  practically 
limitless,  and  it  can  usually  be  depended  upon,  al- 
though sometimes  failing  at  critical  times.  While 
each  pump  will  furnish  water  for  only  one  or  two 


3/6  IRRIGATION. 

acres,  by  increasing  the  number  of  pumps,  farms 
of  considerable  size  have  been  successfully  tilled, 
as  described  on  pages  265  to  270. 

NORTH  DAKOTA  AND  SOUTH  DAKOTA. 

The  Dakotas  extend  from  the  fertile  Red  River 
Valley  westerly  across  the  Missouri  River,  the 
climate  gradually  becoming  more  and  more  arid 
until  the  Black  Hills  are  reached.  The  country 
east  of  the  Missouri  River,  consisting  of  extensive 
prairies  and  rolling  uplands,  is  usually  considered 
capable  of  raising  a  crop  each  season,  although 
failure  or  diminished  yield  may  occur  at  least  one 
year  in  five.  Irrigation  is  not  largely  practised, 
but  it  would  be  highly  beneficial.  The  principal 
crop  produced  is  wheat,  the  extremely  deep,  rich 
soil  and  level  surface  making  possible  the  great 
so-called  "  bonanza  "  farms,  where  the  apparently 
boundless  ocean  of  waving  grain  extends  in  all 
directions  to  the  horizon.  On  these  great  farms, 
where  all  the  work  is  done  by  machinery,  the  cost 
of  producing  the  crop  is  extremely  small,  and  it 
is  not  considered  possible  or  desirable  to  attempt 
irrigation  ;  but  on  the  small  tracts,  where  diversi- 
fied agriculture  is  practised  and  the  long  summer 
droughts  bear  heavily  upon  the  plants,  it  has  been 
found  profitable  to  artificially  apply  water,  particu- 
larly in  the  James  River  Valley,  where  there  are  a 
large  number  of  artesian  wells  furnishing  water  to 
farms,  as  shown  on  PI.  LVIII,  A. 


THE   DAKOTAS.  377 

West  of  the  Missouri  River  the  surface  of  the 
country  has  been  deeply  eroded,  the  soft  horizontal 
beds  being  carved  into  the  fantastic  forms  of  the 
Bad  Lands.  Some  grazing  is  found  among  these, 
and  a  little  irrigation  is  practised  at  ranches  along 
the  streams,  especially  near  their  head  waters,  where 
they  issue  from  the  Black  Hills.  Here  a  consider- 
able number  of  ditches  have  been  taken  out,  and 
agriculture  has  been  successful  because  of  the  ex- 
cellent markets  afforded  at  the  near-by  mines. 

NEBRASKA. 

In  this  state  irrigation  is  confined  almost  exclu- 
sively to  lands  along  the  North  Platte  River,  ex- 
tending from  the  Wyoming  line  easterly  to  the 
point  where  the  south  branch  enters,  forming  the 
main  Platte  River.  Farther  east  the  climate  be- 
comes relatively  humid,  and,  although  a  few  irriga- 
tion systems  have  been  constructed,  the  use  of 
water  has  not  been  general,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
in  ordinary  seasons  crops  are  raised  by  dry  farm- 
ing. 

The  Platte  and  its  principal  tributaries  are  char- 
acterized by  broad,  sandy  channels,  whence  has 
arisen  the  name.  The  view,  PL  LX,  A,  shows  the 
North  Platte  at  low  water,  with  streams  meander- 
ing across  the  sandy  bottom  in  an  interlacing 
network.  At  high  water  the  stream  spreads  out, 
sometimes  to  great  width,  giving  the  appearance 
of  an  enormous  volume  of  water,  as  shown  by 


3/8  IRRIGATION. 

PL  LX,  B.  It  is  extremely  shallow,  however,  and 
there  is  some  foundation  for  the  popular  claim  that 
the  Platte  is  a  mile  wide  and  too  shallow  for  navi- 
gation by  a  catfish. 

There  is  almost  always  water  in  the  North  Platte 
and  in  the  Platte,  although  it  is  occasionally  re- 
ported that  during  droughts  the  channel  is  dry  on 
the  surface,  the  water  coming  from  the  west  grad- 
ually disappearing  in  the  broad  stretch  of  sand  and 
gravel,  and  percolating  onward  beneath  the  surface. 
The  South  Platte  is  usually  dry  during  the  summer 
for  a  hundred  miles  or  more  in  Colorado,  and  on 
down  to  the  junction  of  the  channel  with  that  of 
the  North  Platte ;  hence  irrigation  development 
along  this  stream  has  been  limited  to  the  use  of 
flood  waters  during  the  early  part  of  the  year. 
South  of  the  Platte,  in  the  valleys  of  the  Republi- 
can and  other  streams,  and  also  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  state,  small  areas  are  cultivated  success- 
fully by  irrigation,  and  this  method  of  agriculture 
is  slowly  extending  as  farmers  become  more  skil- 
ful and  appreciate  the  advantage  of  security  from 
occasional  crop  failures. 

A  large  part  of  the  western  end  of  Nebraska  is 
covered  with  hills  of  shifting  sand,  and  although 
the  soil  is  extremely  light  and  easily  moved  by  the 
strong  winds,  yet,  where  moistened  in  the  hollows 
between  the  hills,  excellent  crops  have  been  pro- 
duced. It  is  highly  probable  that  the  shifting  of 
these  hills  can  be  prevented  by  planting  shrubs  or 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  LX. 


A.     LOOKING   DOWN   NORTH   PLATTE   RIVER   FROM  THE 
NEBRASKA-WYOMING   LINE. 


HEAD   GATES   OF   FARMERS   AND   MERCHANTS    IRRIGATION 
COMPANY   ON    PLATTE   RIVER,    NEAR   COZAD,    NEBRASKA. 


NEBRASKA.  379 

trees,  and  it  has  been  proposed  to  cover  this  vast 
region  more  or  less  completely  with  forests,  mak- 
ing the  waste  land  valuable  for  the  production  of 
timber  and  rendering  possible  the  utilization  of  the 
more  level  portions  for  farms. 

KANSAS. 

In  this  state  the  principal  irrigated  areas  are 
along  the  Arkansas  River,  where  the  conditions 
are  somewhat  similar  to  those  along  the  Platte. 
The  broad,  shallow  channel  is  dry  for  a  part  of  the 
year,  but  water  is  seeping  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  valley  lands  as  well  as  under  the  stream  bed. 
The  ditches,  some  of  them  built  at  large  cost,  can 
receive  water  only  in  times  of  flood  ;  but  by  means 
of  windmills  small  areas  are  irrigated,  not  only  in 
the  valleys,  but  even  to  a  small  extent  on  the  adja- 
cent upland  plains.  Artesian  wells  have  been  suc- 
cessfully constructed  at  a  number  of  localities, 
notably  at  Meade  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
state,  one  of  the  small  wells  being  shown  on  PL 
XXXVIII,  B. 

North  of  the  Arkansas  River  and  between  it  and 
the  Republican  in  Nebraska  are  a  number  of  creeks 
and  rivers  flowing  eastward  and  receiving  a  supply  of 
water  during  the  dry  season  from  perennial  streams 
resulting  from  seepage,  or,  in  other  words,  from 
the  underflow  reaching  the  surface.  The  volume 
of  these  is  swelled  in  the  early  part  of  the  year  by 
local  rains,  but,  taking  the  year  as  a  whole,  the  dis- 


380  IRRIGATION. 

charge  is  wonderfully  uniform,  because  of  the  slow, 
gradual  movement  of  the.  water  from  underground 
into  the  channels.  Irrigation  from  these  streams 
has  been  introduced,  but,  as  noted  on  preceding 
pages,  owing  to  the  occasional  success  of  crops 
without  irrigation,  progress  has  been  slow  and  halt- 
ing. 

OKLAHOMA    AND    TEXAS. 

In  the  recently  settled  territory  of  Oklahoma 
little  has  been  accomplished,  as  the  water"  supply 
in  the  western,  arid  end  is  limited  and  the 
pioneers,  coming  from  humid  regions,  have  as  a 
rule  not  been  familiar  with  the  benefits  of  irriga- 
tion and  have  tried  to  get  along  without  artificially 
applying  water.  This  part  of  the  territory,  adja- 
cent to  Texas,  is  given  up  mainly  to  grazing,  but 
a  few  ditches  have  been  constructed  for  bringing 
water  to  alfalfa  lands  at  the  cattle  ranches. 

Throughout  the  great  extent  of  high  plains 
included  within  what  is  known  as  the  Panhandle 
of  Texas,  irrigation  is  almost  unknown.  It  is  dis- 
tinctly a  cattle  country,  and  water  is  regarded  as 
of  value  principally  for  the  use  of  cattle.  Wells 
have  been  sunk  on  these  high  plains,  and  shallow 
tanks  or  ponds  constructed  at  intervals  of  a  few 
miles,  to  furnish  convenient  watering  places,  as 
shown  on  PI.  VII.  The  ranches  are  of  enormous 
extent,  the  land  having  been  sold  or  disposed  of 
by  the  state  of  Texas  in  great  tracts  to  cattlemen. 
There  is  a  slow  but  gradual  tendency  to  subdivide 


TEXAS.  381 

these  great  tracts  and  to  increase  what  is  known 
as  stock  farming  —  that  is,  the  carrying  on  of 
farming  in  connection  with  the  ownership  of  small 
herds,  thus  multiplying  the  number  of  resident 
owners.  Progress  in  this  direction  is  extremely 
slow,  and  it  will  probably  be  many  years  before 
this  vast  tract  of  country  will  be  subdivided  so  as  to 
support  a  population  at  all-  commensurate  with  its 
possibilities.  • 

On  the  extreme  west,  Texas  extends  far  into  the 
arid  region,  and  on  the  border  along  the  Rio 
Grande  irrigation  has  been  practised  by  the  Mexi- 
cans living  on  both  sides  of  the  international  boun- 
dary. From  the  earliest  historical  times  the  small 
communities  have  diverted  water  from  the  stream, 
tilled  gardens,  and  raised  fruit  sufficient  for  their 
own  needs.  This  condition  of  affairs  has  con- 
tinued until  the  present  time,  some  of  the  ancient 
ditches  having  been  enlarged,  and  in  a  few  in- 
stances, as  at  El  Paso,  large  canals  built  to  reclaim 
land  and  provide  opportunities  for  new  settlers. 
The  flow  of  the  Rio  Grande  is,  however,  extremely 
erratic,  and,  owing  doubtless  to  diversions  in  Colo- 
rado and  New  Mexico,  the  channel  of  the  river  is 
frequently  dry  for  months  at  a  time. 

In  the  western  central  part  of  the  state,  as  at 
San  Antonio  and  other  towns  settled  by  the  Mexi- 
cans, irrigation  has  always  been  practised  by  them, 
and  their  example  has  been  followed  by  their  Eng- 
lish-speaking neighbors,  so  that  this  method  of 


382  IRRIGATION. 

agriculture  may  be  said  to  be  widely,  but  not 
largely,  in  vogue.  In  the  extreme  east  the  cultiva- 
tion of  rice  in  the  low  Gulf  counties  has  recently 
attained  great  importance  through  the  flooding  of 
low  lands,  to  which  water  is  brought  largely  by 
pumping. 


IRRIGATION. 


PLATE  LXI. 


DUTCH   WINDMILL  AT   LAWRENCE,    KANSAS- 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

HUMID  REGIONS. 

EXPERIENCE  has  shown  that  irrigation  is  often 
advantageous  even  in  localities  where  the  climate 
is  humid.  If  the  rains  came  at  regular  intervals, 
moistening  the  soil  whenever  it  became  dry,  there 
would  be  no  need  of  the  artificial  application  of 
water  ;  but,  unfortunately,  it  often  happens  that 
the  precipitation  for  a  month  takes  place  in  one  or 
two  large  storms,  which  not  only  soak,  but  flood, 
the  ground  and,  washing  away  the  rich  surface 
soil,  may  do  more  injury  than  good.  The  eastern 
half  of  the  United  States  has  been  aptly  termed 
the  region  of  uncontrollable  humidity,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  arid  region,  where,  through  systems 
of  irrigation,  the  application  of  water  to  the  soil 
can  be  exactly  controlled. 

Some  of  the  heavier  soils  retain  moisture  for 
long  periods,  and  the  irregularities  of  rainfall  do 
not  noticeably  affect  vegetation,  although  some- 
what retarding  its  growth  and  development.  On 
sandy  or  pervious  soils  the  alternations  of  wet 
and  dry  produce  marked  changes,  and  a  drought  of 
a  few  weeks'  duration  results  in  decided  injury  to 

383 


384  IRRIGATION. 

the  crops.  Thus  it  happens  that  in  many  parts  of 
the  humid  region  small  irrigating  systems  have 
been  built  for  occasional  use.  The  investments  in 
these  may  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  an  insurance 
against  the  accidents  of  weather,  which  are  so 
injurious  to  the  farmer. 

The  most  common  and  widespread  form  of 
irrigation  is  the  ordinary  practice  of  watering  lawns 
and  gardens.  In  this  sense  irrigation  is  habitually 
employed  in  every  city  and  town  throughout  the 
United  States,  although  not  usually  recognized 
under  this  name.  There  is  no  marked  difference 
between  the  irrigation  of  suburban  grass  plots  and 
gardens  in  the  East,  and  that  of  large  farms  in  the 
arid  region,  other  than  in  size  and  completeness  of 
the  mechanical  devices  for  conveying  and  distribut- 
ing the  water. 

The  almost  universal  practice  of  watering  grass 
plots  and  vegetables  testifies  to  the  great  value  of 
the  artificial  application  of  water,  even  in  the  Eastern 
and  Southern  states,  and  the  same  systematic 
watering  of  orchards  and  fields  would  produce 
similar  benefits.  It  is  simply  a  question  of  cost 
relative  to  profits.  In  the  arid  region,  where  crops 
cannot  be  raised  without  water,  the  cost  of  bring- 
ing it  to  the  fields  has,  by  skill  and  experience, 
been  reduced  to  the  lowest  possible  amount.  In  t lui 
humid  region,  where  the  necessity  has  been  less, 
invention  and  enterprise  have  not  been  stimulated 
to  the  same  degree,  and,  while  all  the  facilities  for 


HUMID    REGIONS.  385 

irrigation  exist,  it  has  not  been  generally  introduced 
on  a  large  scale. 

The  practice  of  irrigation  in  arid  regions  has,  to 
a  certain  extent,  unconsciously  prejudiced  farmers 
in  the  humid  regions  against  it,  as  they  viewed  it 
as  something  consequent  upon  desert  conditions. 
It  is,  however,  a  method  for  improving  the  soil 
comparable  to  the  application  of  fertilizers.  Large 
expenses  are  incurred  in  purchasing  enriching 
material  to  be  added  to  the  soil,  and  care  is  taken 
to  save  and  apply  barnyard  manure  to  increase 
the  yield  of  crops.  The  same  amount  of  energy 
and  expense  devoted  to  the  construction  of  irriga- 
tion works  would  doubtless  yield  even  larger 
returns.  Comparing  irrigation  also  with  drainage, 
it  is  noted  that  no  hesitation  is  felt  by  the  farmers 
of  the  humid  East  in  digging  ditches  to  remove 
surplus  water  from  fertile  bottom  lands,  but  the 
reverse  process,  of  bringing  water  to  lands  which 
would  be  productive  if  sufficiently  moist,  is  a  matter 
the  importance  of  which  has  not  been  fully  grasped 
by  the  agriculturist. 

Water,  as  stated  on  pages  4  and  1 80,  is  the  most 
important  plant  food,  entering  in  great  volume  into 
their  tissues,  and  being  the  vehicle  by  which  other 
foods  can  be  obtained  in  proper  quantities.  By 
regulating  the  supply  of  this,  plant  growth  can  be 
stimulated  even  in  climates  which  seem  moist,  as 
is  illustrated  everywhere  by  watering  lawns  and 
kitchen  gardens. 

2C 


386  IRRIGATION. 

The  supposedly  great  expense  of  bringing  water 
to  the  fields  has  deterred  many  farmers  from 
attempting  irrigation.  A  little  consideration  and 
study,  however,  will  show  that  farm  ditches  can 
often  be  built  in  humid  lands  at  far  less  expense 
than  in  the  arid  region,  because  the  water  supply 
from  running  streams  is  larger  and  more  widely 
distributed.  The  methods  of  constructing  ditches 
have  been  described  on  pages  102  to  148,  and  it 
has  been  pointed  out  that  irrigation  systems  on  a 
rather  large  scale  have  been  built  by  farmers  or 
associations  without  employing  any  special  engi- 
neering assistance  or  requiring  capital.  The  work 
can  be  done  by  plough  and  scraper,  aided  by  pick 
and  shovel ;  and  a  man  of  ordinary  skill  in  farm 
work,  one  who  can  lay  out  a  drain  or  set  an  orchard 
in  regular  rows,  can  build  an  irrigating  ditch. 

The  cost  of  irrigation  in  humid  regions  theoreti- 
cally should  be  less  than  that  in  the  West,  owing 
to  more  widely  distributed  sources  of  water  supply. 
As  a  rule  it  has  been  higher,  because  most  of  the 
devices  have  been  experimental  in  character,  or 
have  been  the  result  of  the  practice  of  what  might 
be  called  fancy  farming,  where  irrigation  has  been 
treated  as  a  fad  of  the  owner.  The  average  first 
cost  of  bringing  water  to  the  land  in  the  West,  as 
ascertained  by  the  1890  census,  was  $8.15  per  acre, 
and  the  average  annual  cost  of  maintenance  was 
$  1.07  per  acre.  The  largest  yearly  expenditure  is 
in  California,  as  noted  on  pages  219  and  326.  In 


JATJON. 


PLATE  LXII. 


A.    CLEAN   SWEEP  OF  THE    PRAIRIE   FIRE. 


THE  CARPET  OF  GRASS  ON  THE    HIGH    PLAI1 


HUMID   REGIONS.  387 

the  state  of  Connecticut  56  farms,  with  a  total  area 
under  ditch  of  471  acres,  were  reported  as  irrigated 
in  1899.  The  cost  of  the  ditches,  pipes,  pumps, 
reservoirs,  and  other  appliances  for  obtaining  and 
conveying  water  to  these  farms  was  estimated  at 
$16,113,  —  an  average  of  $34.21  per  acre  irrigated, 
or  about  four  times  the  cost  in  the  arid  region. 

The  value  of  various  small  fruits  and  market 
garden  crops  in  the  vicinity  of  large  cities  is  esti- 
mated per  acre  as  follows  :  —  For  strawberries  and 
raspberries,  from  $200  to  $400;  asparagus,  $100  to 
$200;  onions,  $150  to  $300,  and  correspondingly 
with  other  vegetables.  It  is  thus  very  easy  for  large 
losses  to  result  from  a  slight  deficiency  in  moisture. 
With  water  applied  at  the  right  time  a  crop  may 
be  worth  $400  per  acre,  while  the  adjacent  field, 
receiving  a  trifle  less  supply,  yields  only  $100.  The 
difference  would  repay  the  cost  of  one  of  the  most 
expensive  devices  for  obtaining  a  water  supply. 

The  best  results  have  often  not  been  obtained 
because  of  the  fear  of  getting  the  ground  too  wet. 
In  the  country  of  uncontrollable  moisture,  where 
rains  are  apt  to  occur  any  day,  yet  may  not  fall  for 
weeks,  there  is  always  great  uncertainty  as  to  the 
weather,  a  condition  which  the  farmer  in  the  arid 
region  is  not  required  to  meet.  He  knows  that 
there  will  be  no  rain  and  probably  no  notable 
change  in  temperature  for  weeks.  But  in  the 
humid  region  the  farmer,  seeing  clouds  gather, 
may  conclude  that,  even  if  an  irrigation  system  is 


388  IRRIGATION. 

at  hand,  it  will  not  be  wise  to  turn  water  upon  the 
fields.  He  usually  hesitates  until  too  late  to  secure 
the  best  results.  If  he  does  apply  water,  the  land 
may  be  no  sooner  thoroughly  wet  than  a  heavy 
rain  will  occur,  almost  drowning  out  the  plants. 
As  a  rule,  however,  on  open  or  sandy  soil  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  apply  too  much  water,  and  when  the  ground 
is  thoroughly  saturated  after  an  irrigation  the  rain 
will  merely  flow  off  the  surface  or  sink  into  the 
pervious  soil. 

Another  obstacle  to  the  development  of  irriga- 
tion in  the  East  has  been  the  possible  interference 
with  riparian  rights.  The  laws  of  the  humid  East, 
borrowed  from  England,  jealously  guard  the  flow- 
ing waters,  and  as  a  rule  confer  extraordinary 
privileges  upon  millowners  and  others  who  make 
use  of  the  stream  for  power.  Any  diversion  of  the 
flowing  water  for  municipal  purposes  has  been  usu- 
ally the  subject  of  long  controversy,  and  attempts 
to  take  out  ditches  for  irrigation  have  often  met 
with  opposition  on  the  part  of  owners  of  mill 
rights  lower  down  the  stream.  It  is  therefore  of 
great  importance  to  have  accurate  measurements 
of  the  rivers  in  order  to  ascertain  to  what  extent 
the  diversion  of  water  may  affect  water-power  be- 
low, for  it  can  probably  be  shown  in  many  cases 
that  the  increased  seepage  in  times  of  low  water 
will  compensate  largely  for  the  diversion  of  water, 
and  may  be  so  great  as  to  increase  the  low-water 
discharge  of  late  summer. 


HUMID    REGIONS.  389 

Owing  to  the  fear  of  exactions  by  riparian 
owners,  large  irrigation  systems  have,  as  a  rule,  not 
been  attempted  in  the  East,  but  development  has 
proceeded  mainly  along  the  line  of  using  springs 
or  of  pumping  water  by  wind  power,  steam,  or 
gasolene  engines.  Devices  of  this  kind  are  being 
rapidly  improved  and  adapted  to  local  conditions, 
the  cost  of  procuring  water  being  correspondingly 
reduced,  so  that  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  for 
five  or  ten  acres  a  small  pumping  plant  can  be 
operated  advantageously,  the  increased  productive- 
ness of  the  soil  occasionally  repaying,  even  in  one 
season,  all  of  the  expense.  This,  of  course,  can  be 
true  only  of  the  finer  grades  of  fruits,  berries,  and 
market  garden  products.  The  pumping  machines 
which  have  proved  most  successful  are  those  de- 
signed for  strength  and  simplicity,  so  as  to  require 
as  little  attention  as  possible. 

A  careful  examination  of  the  climatic  records  of 
almost  any  locality  in  the  East  shows  that  in  each 
year  the  artificial  application  of  water  is  needed  for 
one  crop  or  another.  Sometimes  the  rains  occur 
at  the  right  times  and  in  proper  quantities  for  the 
success  of  orchards,  but  the  fields  suffer,  or  the 
small  fruits  and  berries  may  have  a  diminished 
yield,  while  the  gardens  prosper.  One  or  two 
years  out  of  five  nearly  every  crop  is  reduced 
through  lack  of  moisture  at  a  certain  period  of 
growth,  so  that,  where  diversified  farming  is  prac- 
tised and  cultivation  is  intensive,  a  machine  ar- 


390  IRRIGATION. 

ranged  for  providing  water  can  be  operated  to 
advantage  for  a  portion  of  the  farm  at  least.  If, 
however,  only  a  single  farm  crop  is  raised,  the 
devices  for  procuring  water  are  apt  to  fall  into  dis- 
use, and  by  neglect  become  valueless  when  called 
into  service  after  standing  idle  for  two  or  three 
years.  In  short,  irrigation  is  of  greatest  advan- 
tage where  a  variety  of  farming  operations  are 
practised. 

It  is  not  only  the  character  of  the  crops  which 
must  be  considered  in  introducing  irrigation  in 
humid  climates,  but  also  the  quality  of  the  soil. 
In  arid  regions  all  ground  requires  artificial  water- 
ing. In  humid  regions,  however,  where  irrigation 
is  needed  more  to  regulate  the  time  of  application 
than  the  quantity  of  water,  the  character  of  the  soil 
must  be  more  carefully  considered,  since  some 
soils  retain  moisture  for  long  periods.  On  such 
soils  crops  may  nourish  during  a  moderate  drought, 
while  on  others  the  plants  quickly  wither  unless 
water  is  continually  applied.  There  is  also  a  great 
difference  in  the  quickness  with  which  the  soils 
and  the  crops  together  seem  to  respond  to  the 
application  of  water.  With  some  vegetables, 
deeply  cultivated,  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any 
perceptible  difference,  while  with  others  there  is  a 
most  marked  change  following  the  systematic  prac- 
tice of  irrigation. 

The  extent  of  irrigation  in  humid  regions  is  at- 
tested by  the  numerous  orchards  and  meadows 


HUMID   REGIONS.  391 

found  by  the  census  enumerators  in  nearly  every 
state  East  as  well  as  West.  Even  in  New  England 
there  are  small  farms  partly  irrigated  and  partly 
drained,  the  distributing  system  having  been  in  use 
for  generations,  and  being  regarded  almost  as  the 
natural  condition  of  things.  The  benefits  are 
shown  by  the  larger  yield  of  hay  and  of  fruit, 
repaying  the  trouble  and  expense  of  occasionally 
turning  the  water  upon  the  ground. 

Along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  eastern  New  Jer- 
sey to  Georgia  are  many  areas  of  sandy  soil,  excel- 
lent for  truck  farming.  Here  early  vegetables  are 
raised  for  the  New  York  and  other  markets.  To 
force  these  to  maturity  and  insure  the  largest  yield, 
it  has  been  found  necessary  to  provide  water,  this 
being  distributed  usually  through  pipes  from  tanks, 
and  occasionally  through  open  furrows.  The  Chi- 
nese and  Italian  gardeners  in  the  suburbs  of  New 
York  and  other  Eastern  cities,  following  the  meth- 
ods of  their  brothers  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  irrigate 
successfully  even  in  this  humid  region,  and  pro- 
duce results  which  are  envied  by  their  native 
neighbors. 

Irrigation  is  also  practised  along  the  Gulf  coast, 
particularly  in  Louisiana  and  Texas,  where  the  cul- 
tivation of  rice  has  been  found  to  be  exceedingly 
profitable.  Here  water  is  obtained  mainly  by 
pumping,  and  great  improvements  have  been  made 
in  machinery  for  this  purpose.  Water  is  also  being 
stored  for  the  rice  fields,  as  it  has  been  found  that, 


392  IRRIGATION. 

by  excessive  pumping  in  times  of  drought,  the  salt 
water  from  the  Gulf  has  found  its  way  inland  up 
the  bayous.  To  prevent  this,  extensive  reservoirs 
have  been  constructed  higher  up  on  the  rivers,  in 
order  that  the  flow  may  be  reenforced  in  times  of 
need. 

Throughout  the  central  Mississippi  Valley,  irri- 
gation has  been  used  to  a  less  extent  than  along 
the  Atlantic  border,  as  the  farms  are  large  and  the 
methods  of  cultivation  are  not  so  complete  as  in 
localities  where  the  soil  is  less  productive  under 
natural  conditions.  Here,  where  nature  has  done 
so  much,  man  has  attempted  little.  It  is  recog- 
nized, however,  that  irrigation  can  be  provided  as 
an  insurance  against  crop  loss.  During  the  time 
of  a  recent  drought,  when  prayers  were  asked  for 
rain,  one  sensible  preacher  refused,  upon  the 
ground  that  it  was  not  proper  to  pray  for  rain 
when  the  opportunities  for  irrigating  the  fields  had 
been  systematically  neglected.  In  other  words,  he 
would  not  invoke  supernatural  agencies  to  repair 
the  consequences  of  man's  shiftlessness. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 
CONCLUSION. 

IN  summing  up  the  whole  matter  of  irrigation  and 
its  present  condition,  nothing  more  concise  and  direct 
can  be  given  than  a  portion  of  President  Roosevelt's 
first  message  to  Congress,  delivered  December  3, 
1901.  In  it  he  made  the  following  statements:  — 

"In  the  arid  region  it  is  water,  not  land,  which 
measures  production.  The  western  half  of  the 
United  States  would  sustain  a  population  greater 
than  that  of  our  whole  country  to-day  if  the  waters 
that  now  run  to  waste  were  saved  and  used  for  irri- 
gation. The  forest  and  water  problems  are  per- 
haps the  most  vital  internal  questions  of  the  United 
States. 

"  The  forests  are  natural  reservoirs.  By  restrain- 
ing the  streams  in  flood  and  replenishing  them  in 
drought  they  make  possible  the  use  of  waters  other- 
wise wasted.  They  prevent  the  soil  from  washing, 
and  so  protect  the  storage  reservoirs  from  'filling 
up  with  silt.  Forest  conservation  is  therefore  an 
essential  condition  of  water  conservation. 

"The  forests  alone  cannot,  however,  fully  regu- 
late and  conserve  the  waters  of  the  arid  region. 
Great  storage  works  are  necessary  to  equalize  the 

393 


394  IRRIGATION. 

flow  of  streams  and  to  save  the  flood  waters. 
Their  construction  has  been  conclusively  shown  to 
be  an  undertaking  too  vast  for  private  effort.  Nor 
can  it  be  best  accomplished  by  the  individual  states 
acting  alone.  Far-reaching  interstate  problems  are 
involved ;  and  the  resources  of  single  states  would 
often  be  inadequate.  It  is  properly  a  national 
function,  at  least  in  some  of  its  features.  It  is  as 
right  for  the  national  government  to  make  the 
streams  and  rivers  of  the  arid  region  useful  by 
engineering  works  for  water  storage  as  to  make 
useful  the  rivers  and  harbors  of  the  humid  region 
by  engineering  works  of  another  kind.  The  stor- 
ing of  the  floods  in  reservoirs  at  the  head  waters  of 
our  rivers  is  but  an  enlargement  of  our  present 
policy  of  river  control,  under  which  levees  are 
built  on  the  lower  reaches  of  the  same  streams. 

"  The  government  should  construct  and  maintain 
these  reservoirs  as  it  does  other  public  works. 
Where  their  purpose  is  to  regulate  the  flow  of 
streams,  the  water  should  be  turned  freely  into 
the  channels  in  the  dry  season  to  take  the  same 
course  under  the  same  laws  as  the  natural  flow. 

"The  reclamation  of  the  unsettled  arid  public 
lands  presents  a  different  problem.  Here  it  is  not 
enough  to  regulate  the  flow  of  streams.  The  object 
of  the  government  is  to  dispose  of  the  land  to  set- 
tlers who  will  build  homes  upon  it.  To  accomplish 
this  object  water  must  be  brought  within  their 
reach. 


PRESIDENTS    MESSAGE.  395 

"  The  pioneer  settlers  on  the  arid  public  domain 
chose  their  homes  along  streams  from  which  they 
could  themselves  divert  the  water  to  reclaim  their 
holdings.  Such  opportunities  are  practically  gone. 
There  remain,  however,  vast  areas  of  public  land 
which  can  be  made  available  for  homestead  settle- 
ment, but  only  by  reservoirs  and  main-line  canals 
impracticable  for  private  enterprise.  These  irriga- 
tion works  should  be  built  by  the  national  govern- 
ment. The  lands  reclaimed  by  them  should  be 
reserved  by  the  government  for  actual  settlers, 
and  the  cost  of  construction  should,  so  far  as  .pos- 
sible, be  repaid  by  the  land  reclaimed.  The  dis- 
tribution of  the  water,  the  division  of  the  streams 
among  irrigators,  should  be  left  to  the  settlers 
themselves,  in  conformity  with  state  laws  and  with- 
out interference  with  those  laws  or  with  vested 
rights.  The  policy  of  the  national  government 
should  be  to  aid  irrigation  in  the  several  states  and 
territories  in  such  manner  as  will  enable  the  people 
in  the  local  communities  to  help  themselves,  and 
as  will  stimulate  needed  reforms  in  the  state  laws 
and  regulations  governing  irrigation. 

"The  reclamation  and  settlement  of  the  arid 
lands  will  enrich  every  portion  of  our  country, 
just  as  the  settlement  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
valleys  brought  prosperity  to  the  Atlantic  states. 
The  increased  demand  for  manufactured  articles 
will  stimulate  industrial  production,  while  wider 
home  markets  and  the  trade  of  Asia  will  consume 


3Q6  IRRIGATION. 

the  larger  food  supplies  and  effectually  prevent 
Western  competition  with  Eastern  agriculture.  In- 
deed, the  products  of  irrigation  will  be  consumed 
chiefly  in  upbuilding  local  centres  of  mining  and 
other  industries,  which  would  otherwise  not  come 
into  existence  at  all.  Our  people  as  a  whole  will 
profit,  for  successful  home-making  is  but  another 
name  for  the  upbuilding  of  the  nation. 

"  The  necessary  foundation  has  already  been  laid 
for  the  inauguration  of  the  policy  just  described. 
It  would  be  unwise  to  begin  by  doing  too  much, 
for  a  great  deal  will  doubtless  be  learned,  both  as 
to  what  can  and  what  cannot  be  safely  attempted, 
by  the  early  efforts,  which  must  of  necessity  be 
partly  experimental  in  character.  At  the  very 
beginning  the  government  should  make  clear, 
beyond  shadow  of  doubt,  its  intention  to  pursue 
this  policy  on  lines  of  the  broadest  public  interest. 
No  reservoir  or  canal  should  ever  be  built  to  sat- 
isfy selfish  personal  or  local  interests,  but  only  in 
accordance  with  the  advice  of  trained  experts,  after 
long  investigation  has  shown  the  locality  where  all 
the  conditions  combine  to  make  the  work  most 
needed  and  fraught  with  the  greatest  usefulness  to 
the  community  as  a  whole.  There  should  be  no 
extravagance,  and  the  believers  in  the  need  of  irri- 
gation will  most  benefit  their  cause  by  seeing  to  it 
that  it  is  free  from  the  least  taint  of  excessive  or 
reckless  expenditure  of  the  public  moneys." 

The  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Hon.  Ethan  Allen 


HITCHCOCK'S    REPORT.  397 

Hitchcock,  in  his  report  to  the  President,  dated 
November  21,  1901,  also  summed  up  the  more 
important  features  of  this  great  national  undertak- 
ing, as  follows:  — 

"In  my  report  for  1900  attention  was  called  to 
the  importance  of  providing,  through  wise  admin- 
istration, for  the  creation  of  homes  for  millions  of 
people  upon  the  arid  but  fertile  public  lands.  This 
matter  is  being  given  increased  attention  by  the 
public  press  and  by  writers  upon  the  subject. 

"  Briefly  stated,  the  results  of  the  examination  of 
the  extent  to  which  arid  lands  can  be  reclaimed  by 
irrigation  show  that,  while  one-third  of  the  United 
States  is  still  vacant,  there  are  relatively  few  local- 
ities where  homes  can  now  be  made.  This  is  not 
because  the  soil  is  barren  or  infertile,  but  on  ac- 
count of  the  difficulty  of  securing  an  adequate 
water  supply.  There  is  water  to  be  had,  but  this 
water  is  mainly  in  large  rivers,  from  which  it  can 
be  taken  only  by  great  structures,  or  the  supply 
comes  in  sudden  floods  and  cannot  be  utilized  until 
great  reservoirs  have  been  built.  It  is  impossible 
for  a  laboring  man  or  an  association  of  settlers  to 
build  these  great  works. 

"  The  pioneer  coming  to  the  arid  region  found 
many  small  streams  from  which  water  could  be 
taken  out  upon  agricultural  land.  He  was  able 
through  his  own  efforts  to  irrigate  a  small  farm 
and  to  make  a  home.  These  easily  available 
waters  have  been  taken,  and  a  man  can  no  longer 


398  IRRIGATION. 

secure  a  foothold,  although  there  still  remain  600,- 
000,000  acres  of  vacant  land.  It  is  possible,  by 
water  storage  and  by  building  diversion  works 
from  great  rivers,  to  bring  water  to  points  where 
such  men  can  utilize  it  and  can  enjoy  opportunities 
similar  to  those  had  by  the  earlier  settlers.  Unless 
this  is  done  much  of  the  country  must  remain  bar- 
ren, and  thousands  of  men  and  women  eager  to 
become  independent  citizens  must  remain  as  wan- 
derers or  tenants  of  others. 

"  Enough  work  has  been  done  by  private  capital 
to  demonstrate  the  fact  that  water  conservation 
and  the  diversion  of  large  rivers  is  practicable,  but, 
like  many  other  works  of  great  public  importance, 
it  cannot  be  made  a  source  of  profit.  The  works 
of  reclamation  already  constructed  have,  as  a  rule, 
been  unprofitable,  and  capitalists  are  no  longer 
seeking  opportunities  for  reclaiming  desert  land 
when  the  probabilities  are  against  their  receiving 
an  adequate  compensation  for  the  risk  and  labor 
involved. 

"  The  argument  has  been  presented  that  if  the 
government  will  not  make  it  possible  to  bring 
water  to  these  lands  they  should  be  turned  over  to 
the  states ;  but  the  majority  of  citizens  who  have 
studied  the  subject  are  opposed  to  such  action,  on 
the  ground  that  the  vacant  public  lands  are  the 
heritage  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  and 
should  be  held  for  the  creation  of  homes,  and  not 
made  a  subject  of  speculation,  as  has  almost  inva- 


HITCHCOCK'S   REPORT.  399 

riably  been  the  case  with  lands  donated  to  the 
states.  The  whole  trend  of  enlightened  public 
sentiment  is  in  favor  of  an  expansion  of  industries 
and  commerce  internally  through  wise  action  by 
the  national  government  rather  than  attempting 
to  get  rid  of  the  duties  and  opportunities  of  owner- 
ship by  giving  away  this  valuable  property. 

"  Two  distinct  conditions  are  to  be  clearly  dis- 
tinguished in  the  problem  of  water  conservation 
for  the  development  of  the  West.  On  the  one 
hand,  there  are  localities  where  the  agricultural 
land  along  the  rivers  has  been  brought  under  irri- 
gation and  there  is  a  demand  for  water  to  an  extent 
far  exceeding  the  supply,  and  where  all  of  the 
flood  water,  though  stored,  would  not  suffice  to  sat- 
isfy the  demands  of  the  lands  now  partly  tilled. 
The  other  contrasting  condition  is  where  there 
still  remain  vast  bodies  of  public  land  for  which 
water  can  be  provided  by  means  of  reservoirs  or  by 
diversion  from  large  rivers  whose  flow  cannot  be 
used.  Here  the  construction  of  works  of  reclama- 
tion in  no  way  affects  lands  now  in  private  owner- 
ship. Between  these  two  extremes  are  all  varieties 
of  intermediate  conditions,  but  these  may  be  arbi- 
trarily classed  \vith  one  or  the  other. 

"  In  the  first  case  reservoirs,  if  constructed,  must 
be  treated  in  the  same  way  in  which  other  public 
works  having  to  do  with  rivers  and  harbors  are 
managed.  The  water  conserved  should  be  used  to 
increase  the  flow  of  the  stream  during  the  season 


400  IRRIGATION. 

of  drought,  regulating  the  volume  so  that  it  can  be 
utilized  to  the  best  advantage,  according  to  the 
laws  and  customs  prevailing  in  the  locality.  This 
is  comparable  to  the  conditions  where  the  outlet 
of  a  harbor  has  been  improved  without  reference 
to  the  benefits  to  the  owners  of  the  docks  around 
the  shores. 

"  Under  the  other  condition,  where  there  are  un- 
appropriated waters  flowing  to  waste  which  can  be 
brought  within  reach  of  public  land,  it  is  possible 
to  make  provisions  such  that  the  government  can 
be  reimbursed  for  its  expenditure.  The  lands  to 
be  benefited  by  such  works  should  be  reserved  for 
homestead  entry  only  in  small  tracts,  each  being 
subject  to  the  payment,  before  the  title  is  finally 
passed,  of  a  sum  equivalent  to  the  cost  of  storing 
or  conserving  the  water,  such  payment  to  be  made, 
if  desired,  in  instalments  extending  over  a  number 
of  years. 

"  Water  should  be  brought  to  the  point  where 
the  settlers  can,  with  their  own  labor  or  by  cooper- 
ation, construct  ditches  and  laterals  to  reclaim  the 
desert  land.  The  conditions  in  this  case  would  be 
comparable  to  opening  a  rich  tract  of  land  hitherto 
reserved.  The  moment  the  government  throws 
down  the  desert  barriers,  or  announces  its  purpose 
of  so  doing  by  making  possible  the  obtaining  of 
water,  there  will  be  an  eager  rush  on  the  part  of 
home  seekers.  With  the  requirement  of  actual 
settlement  and  cultivation,  to  be  followed  by  the 


HITCHCOCK'S    REPORT.  401 

payment  of  the  cost  of  storing  water,  the  specula- 
tive element  will  be  eliminated,  leaving  the  ground 
free  to  bona  fide  settlers. 

"  It  is  safe  to  predict  from  the  recent  struggles 
for  homes  upon  the  public  domain  that,  if  it  should 
be  determined  that  the  San  Carlos  dam,  for  ex- 
ample, is  to  be  built  by  the  government,  every 
acre  of  vacant  land  to  be  supplied  with  water 
would  be  immediately  taken  in  small  tracts  by  men 
who  would  not  only  cultivate  the  ground  when 
water  is  had,  but  in  the  meantime  would  be  avail- 
able as  laborers  in  the  construction  of  the  works, 
and  would  ultimately  refund  to  the  government  the 
cost  of  the  undertaking.  In  this  manner  thousands 
of  the  best  class  of  citizens  in  the  country  would 
be  permanently  located  in  prosperous  homes  upon 
what  is  now  a  desert  waste. 

"  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  western  half  of 
the  United  States  would  sustain  a  population  as 
great  as  that  of  the  whole  country  at  present,  if  the 
waters  now  unutilized  were  saved  and  employed  in 
irrigating  the  ground. 

"  The  first  step  in  water  conservation  has  been 
taken  by  Congress  in  giving  authority  for  setting 
aside  great  areas  of  wooded  land,  largely  for  the 
beneficial  influence  which  they  exert  upon  the 
water  supply.  This  should  be  followed  by  the  con- 
struction, within  the  forest  reserves,  and  elsewhere 
when  practicable,  of  substantial  dams  impounding 
flood  and  waste  waters. 

2D 


402  IRRIGATION. 

"  Underground  waters  may  be  had  in  some 
localities  where  it  is  not  practicable  to  irrigate  the 
surface  by  means  of  stored  water.  The  conditions 
favorable  for  artesian  wells  are  believed  to  exist  in 
a  number  of  desert  areas,  and  it  is  probable  that 
important  sources  of  supply  can  be  had  by  artesian 
wells.  The  division  of  hydrography  has  begun 
the  systematic  study  of  some  of  these  places,  and 
has  prepared  maps  showing  the  depth  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  water-bearing  rocks.  Such  maps 
are  invaluable  in  the  development  of  the  country. 
These  can  be  prepared  for  the  edges  of  the  artesian 
basins,  where  the  rocks  are  partly  upturned,  but 
far  out  from  the  mountains  it  is  necessary  to  sink 
test  wells.  If  these  are  properly  located  after 
thorough  study  of  all  the  surrounding  conditions, 
it  may  be  possible  to  settle  the  question  of  artesian 
supplies  and  definitely  outline  the  underground 
condition  for  hundreds  of  square  miles  of  public 
land.  Only  by  obtaining  such  information  can  the 
value  of  this  land  and  the  practicability  of  settle- 
ment be  made  known.  It  is  highly  important, 
therefore,  that  a  few  such  deep  wells  be  drilled  by 
the  government  upon  desert  land,  for  the  purpose 
of  demonstrating  the  possibility  of  reclamation. 
When  it  is  proved  that  water  can  be  had,  even  at 
considerable  depths,  settlement  will  follow. 

"  There  is  no  function  within  the  power  of  the 
government  higher  than  that  of  making  possible 
the  creation  of  prosperous  homes.  In  his  speech 


HITCHCOCK'S    REPORT.  403 

in  Minneapolis,  Mr.  Roosevelt  said :  '  Through- 
out our  history  the  success  of  the  home-maker  has 
been  but  another  name  for  the  upbuilding  of  the 
nation.'  The  remaining  public  lands  are  the  heri- 
tage of  the  nation,  and  should  be  held  for  homes, 
being  reserved  for  actual  settlers  under  the  home- 
stead act.  The  area  to  be  taken  by  any  one  man 
should  be  reduced  so  that  when  water  has  been 
conserved  by  the  government  the  homestead  shall, 
in  certain  parts  of  the  country,  be  limited  to 
eighty  or  even  forty  acres. 

"  The  investigations  of  the  government  experts 
have  shown  that,  for  example,  in  Arizona,  where 
high-class  fruits  are  cultivated,  a  family  of  five  can 
obtain  a  good  living  upon  forty  acres,  or  even 
twenty.  In  the  colder  parts  of  the  arid  region, 
where  forage  crops  are  largely  raised,  the  area 
may  be  made  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres. 

"  The  water  for  irrigation  should  be  distributed 
in  conformity  with  the  laws  of  the  state  and  with- 
out interference  with  any  vested  rights  which  have 
already  accrued. 

"  Where  reservoirs  or  main-line  canals  are  built 
by  the  national  government  to  furnish  water  for 
the  public  lands,  the  administration  should  pro- 
ceed in  harmony  with  the  state  laws,  as  would  be 
the  case  with  any  other  large  landowner  —  state 
and  nation  cooperating  to  accomplish  a  result  of 
far-reaching  benefit  to  both. 

"  The  expansion  of  our  interior  trade  and  com- 


404  IRRIGATION. 

merce,  through  the  settlement  of  the  arid  lands 
and  the  increase  of  population  in  the  West,  would 
benefit  every  class  and  section  of  our  country,  in 
the  same  way  that  the  settlement  of  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  valleys  has  brought  prosperity  and 
wealth  to  the  states  east  of  the  Alleghanies.  The 
settlement  of  the  vast  arid  region  still  farther  to 
the  west  would  benefit  the  whole  eastern  half  of 
the  United  States  by  creating  new  home  markets 
for  Eastern  merchants,  Southern  cotton  growers, 
and  all  manufacturers.  It  would  enormously  in- 
crease local  traffic,  and  would  tend  to  relieve  the 
congestion  of  our  great  centres  of  population, 
creating  opportunities  which  would  go  far  to  allay 
social  discontent.  It  would  promote  industrial 
stability  by  giving  to  every  man  who  wanted  it  a 
home  on  the  land.  The  rush  for  lands  in  Okla- 
homa testifies  that  there  are  multitudes  of  our 
people  who  will  make  great  sacrifices  to  secure 
such  homes. 

"There  need  be  no  fear  of  competition  of  West- 
ern products  with  Eastern  agriculture,  since  the 
Asiatic  markets  now  opened  will  absorb  the  sur- 
plus of  the  Western  farms.  The  character  of 
these  is  also  such  that  the  staple  crops  of  the  K;ist 
cannot  now  go  to  the  remote  West,  nor  those  of 
the  West  come  East,  excepting  in  the  case  of  semi- 
tropic  and  dried  fruits. 

"  The  investigations  which  have  been  carried  on 
demonstrate  that,  looking  at  the  matter  from  all 


HITCHCOCK'S    REPORT.  405 

sides,  there  is  no  one  question  now  before  tJie  people 
of  the  United  States  of  greater  importance  than  tJic 
conservation  of  the  water  supply  and  the  reclama- 
tion of  tJie  arid  lands  of  the  West,  and  tJieir  set- 
tlement by  men  who  will  actually  build  homes  and 
create  communities.  The  appreciation  of  this  con- 
dition is  shown  by  the  fact  that  both  the  great 
political  parties  inserted  in  their  platforms  articles 
calling  attention  to  the  necessity  of  national  aid 
for  the  creation  of  homes  on  the  public  domain. 

"In  view  of  the  facts  above  noted  it  is  impera- 
tive to  adopt  at  an  early  date  a  definite  policy 
leading  to  the  best  use  of  the  vacant  public  lands. 
It  is  recommended  that  construction  be  at  once 
begun  upon  certain  property  where  the  conditions 
are  known  to  be  such  that  beneficial  results  will 
follow." 

The  President  and  Secretary  do  not  ask  the 
government  to  do  something  which  might  be  better 
clone  by  private  enterprise.  The  latter  has  already 
built  irrigation  works  sufficient  to  utilize  nearly  the 
whole  available  flow  of  the  streams  in  the  arid  regions 
during  the  irrigation  season.  Further  progress  in 
irrigation  can  come  only  through  the  storage  of 
flood  waters  in  reservoirs;  and  nearly  all  of  this 
work  is  absolutely  impossible  without  government 
aid.  Remembering  the  great  productiveness  of 
irrigated  lands,  and  that  farming  with  irrigation  is 
almost  always  intensive  farming,  the  estimate  that 
these  reclaimed  lands  will  provide  food  and  homes 


406  IRRIGATION. 

for  a  population  "  greater  than  that  of  our  whole 
country  to-day"  does  not  seem  extravagant. 

In  comparison  with  such  a  possible  development 
every  other  project  or  public  work  which  the  govern- 
ment is  asked  to  undertake  seems  indeed  insignifi- 
cant. The  dead  and  profitless  deserts  need  only 
the  magic  touch  of  water  to  make  arable  lands  that 
will  afford  farms  and  homes  for  the  surplus  people  of 
our  overcrowded  Eastern  cities,  and  for  that  end- 
less procession  of  home-seekers  filing  through  Castle 
Garden. 

The  national  government,  the  owner  of  these 
arid  lands,  is  the  only  power  competent  to  carry 
this  mighty  enterprise  to  a  successful  conclusion, 
to  divide  the  reclaimed  lands  into  small  farms  for 
actual  settlers  and  home-builders  only,  and  to  pro- 
vide water  for  the  settlers  at  a  price  sufficient 
merely  to  reimburse  the  cost  of  the  work. 

When  the  plans  for  irrigation  suggested  by 
President  Roosevelt  and  Secretary  Hitchcock  are 
carried  out,  every  section  of  this  country  will  be 
benefited.  The  East  and  Middle  West  will  find  in 
that  regenerated  empire  a  market  for  machinery 
and  manufactured  products  of  every  description  ; 
the  South  will  find  ready  sale  for  the  fabrics  of 
her  cotton  looms;  while  the  farmers  of  the  reclaimed 
regions  will  send  the  cereal  products  of  their  acres 
across  the  Pacific  to  the  swarming  millions  of  the 
Orient.  Viewed  from  every  standpoint,  the  national 
irrigation  movement  is  full  of  promise  to  the  nation. 


INDEX. 


Aberdeen,  So.  Dak.,  artesian  wells 

of,  249. 
Accuracy  of  weir    measurements. 

100. 

Acre-foot,  defined,  83. 
Advantages  of  irrigation,  272-285. 
Alfalfa,  flooding  of.  199. 
Algeria,  reference  to,  317. 
Alkali,  281-285. 
Alkali  along  Rio  Grande,  349. 
Alkali,  in  seepage  water,  227. 
American  Falls,  Id.,  337. 
Amount  of  water  applied,  212-220. 
Anaheim,  Cal.,  323,  326. 
Anti-debris  law,  318. 
Apache  Indians,  308. 
Appalachian  region,  rainfall  of,  26. 
Appropriation  of  water,  286-298. 
Appurtenant  water  rights,  295. 
Aquatic  plants  in  canals,  148. 
Arid  regions,  location  of,  13. 
Arid  States  and  Territories,  299- 

3°3- 
Arizona    Agricultural    Experiment 

Station,  work  of,  45. 
Arizona,  described,  304-312. 
Arizona,  methods  of  irrigation  in, 

188. 

Arizona,  miner's  inch  in,  129. 
Arizona,  use  of  water  in,  21^. 
Arkansas  River,  Col.,  329-332. 
Artesian  conditions  in  Oregon, 

351-353- 

Artesian  conditions  in  Utah,  358. 
Artesian  condition  on  Great  Plains, 

373-376. 

Artesian  wells,  246-253. 
Artesian  wells  in  Kansas,  379. 


Artesian  wells  in  Washington,  360- 

361. 

Asia,  trade  with,  395,  404. 
Associations  of  irrigators,  107,  109. 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  land  grant,  7. 
Atlantic  coast,  rainfall  on,  23. 
Atmospheric  movement,  16. 
Austin,  Tex.,  dam,  failure  of,  162. 
Azusa,  Cal.,  charge  for  water  at, 

326. 

Bad  Lands,  So.  Dak.,  377. 
Barley,  water  required  by,  213. 
Basin  irrigation,  204,  219. 
Battery  for  current  meter,  89. 
Bear  River  Canal,  Utah,  355,  356. 
Bear  Valley  Dam,  317. 
Beowawe,  Neb.,  rainfall  at,  18. 
Berlin,  sewage  irrigation,  277. 
Bighorn  Mountains,  Wyo.,  362,  363. 
Billings,  Mont.,  340. 
Bisulphate  of  mercury  battery,  90. 
Black  alkali,  282. 
Black  Hills,  So.  Dak.,  377. 
Black  Hills,  Wyo.,  362-363. 
Block  system  of  irrigation,  188. 
Blue  Mountains,  Or.,  335,  350-353. 
Boats  for  stream  measurement,  93. 
Boise,  Id.,  336. 
Boise,  Id.,  rainfall  at,  18. 
Boise  River,  Id.,  334-338. 
Bonds  to  aid  irrigation   construc- 
tion, 108. 

Boxes  for  taking  water,  184,  185. 
Bozeman,  Mont.,  340. 
Brush  dams,  116,  117. 
Buffalo,  N.Y.,  rainfall  at,  20. 
I  Bunch  grass  on  the  plains,  371. 


407 


408 


INDEX. 


Cable  and  car  for  measuring  river, 

93-95- 
Cache  la  Pouche  River,  Col.,  332, 

333- 
Cache  la  Poudre,  water  diverted  to, 

178. 
Cache  Valley,  Utah,  dry  farming  in, 

Si- 
California,  artesian  wells  of,  248. 
California,  description  of,  312-328. 
California,  dry  farming  in,  49. 
California,  miner's  inch  in,  129. 
California,  Southern,  deserts  of,  27. 
California,  Southern,  use  of  water 

in,  216-219. 
California,   summer   droughts    in, 

21. 

Canada,  arid  regions  in,  14. 
Canadian  Pacific  railway  hydraulic 

fills,  173. 

Canvas  dam,  196,  197. 
Carlsbad,  N.  Mex.,  350. 
Carson  River,  Nev.,  343-345. 
Carson  sink,  deserts  near,  56. 
Cascade  Range,  Or.,  350. 
Cascade  Range,  rivers  from,  61. 
Cascade  Range,  Wash.,  358,  359. 
Casing  of  wells,  245. 
Castle  Garden,  immigrants,  406. 
Cattle  grazing,  36-49. 
Cement  distributing  ditch,  206. 
Cement  for  dams,  156. 
Cement  lining  of  canals,  139-141. 
Cement  pipe  irrigation,  207. 
Central  Pacific  land  grant,  7. 
Checks  for  irrigating,  185-193. 
Cheyenne,  Wyo.,  362,  363. 
Cheyenne,  Wyo.,  rainfall  at,  18. 
Chinese  gardeners,  391. 
Chinese  gardeners,  using  irrigation, 

191. 

Cienegas,  flow  of  water  from,  325. 
Cippoletti  weir,  132-134. 
Citrus  land,  Cal.,  charge  for  water, 

S2?. 
Cleaning  reservoirs,  156-159. 


Climate  is  fixed,  26. 
Climate  not  changing,  71. 
Climate  of  West  formerly  humid, 

70. 

Coast  range,  lands  near,  17. 
Coast  Range,  rivers  from,  61. 
Colorado,  eastern,  dry  farming  in, 

49. 

Colorado,  irrigation  in,  329-333. 
Colorado,  miner's  inch  in,  129. 
Colorado  River,  331. 
Colorado  River,  305,  313. 
Colorado  River,  deserts  near,  27. 
Colorado  River,  Col.,  deserts  near, 

56. 

Colorado  River,  location  of,  59,  61. 
Colorado  River,  Tex.,  dam  on,  162. 
Colorado  River,  Utah,  357,  358. 
Colorado  Springs,  Col.,  330. 
Colorado  water  laws,  in. 
Columbia  River,  location  of,  60. 
Columbia  River,  Wash.,  359-360. 
Common  fund  of  water,  216. 
Competition    between     East    and 

West,  396,  404. 

Compressed  air  for  pumping,  269. 
Computations  of  stream  flow,  82- 

101. 
Congress,  action  in  water  storage, 

401. 

Congress,  land  under  control  of,  6. 
Connecticut,  irrigation  in,  387. 
Constructing  a  ditch,  103-106. 
Contour  maps  of  reservoirs,   153, 

*54- 

Conveying  stream  waters,  102-148. 
Coolidge,  Kan.,  artesian  conditions 

at,  374- 
Cordillera  Mountain  system,  effect 

on  climate,  17. 
Corona,  Cal.,  charge  for  water  at, 

326. 

Corporations  for  irrigation,  107. 
Cost  of  irrigation,  386,  387. 
Cottonwood  Creek,  Utah,  weir  on, 

98. 


INDEX. 


409 


Crocker-Huffman  Canal,  Cal.,  tun- 
nel on,  139. 

Crooked  River,  Or.,  351. 

Cubic  foot  per  second  as  a  unit, 
83,  84. 

Cultivable  areas,  comparison  with 
cultivated,  52. 

Cultivated  lands,  49-56. 

Curbing  of  wells,  244, 

Current  Meters,  89-97. 

Dakota  sandstone,  374-376. 
Dams  and  head  gates,  115-119. 
Dams,  earth,  166-170. 
Dam,  lor  measuring  water,  97-101. 
Dams,  hydraulic,  170-173. 
Dams,  masonry,  159-162. 
Dams,  rock-filled,  162-166. 
Debris  from  placer  mining,  172. 
Denmark,  comparison,  of  area  of, 

302. 

Derrick  for  artesian  wells,  249. 
Deschutes  River,  Or.,  fluctuations 

of,  63. 

Desert  lands,  area  by  states,  55. 
Deserts,  extent  of,  28. 
Distributing  ditches,  183. 
Distributing  water  on  rolling  land, 

201. 

Distribution  of  flow,  108-115. 
District  law  of  California,  319. 
Ditch  construction,  103-106. 
Ditches,  distributing,  183. 
Ditch-rider,  107. 
Diversion  of  waters,  102-108. 
Dividing  stream  waters,  102-148. 
Dividing  water  proportionally,  121. 
Drainage  and  irrigation,  385. 
Drainage  and  irrigation,  212. 
Drainage,  importance  of,  58. 
Drops  in  canals,  145. 
Drought  in  California,  321,  324. 
Dry  farming,  49-51. 
Dry  farming,  independence  of,  10. 
Dutch  windmill,  375. 
Duty  of  water,  215. 


Duty  of  water  under  Sweetwater 
system,  California,  328. 

Earth  dams,  166-170. 

Earth  reservoirs,  for  windmill  irri- 
gation, 268. 

Economy  in  use  of  water  in  Cali- 
fornia, 321. 

Egypt,  an  arid  country,  15. 

Egypt,  pumping  in,  254,  255. 

Electric  current  metres,  89-97. 

Electric  power  used  in  pumping, 
212. 

El  Paso,  Tex.,  irrigation  near,  381. 

El  Paso,  Tex.,  Rio  Grande  at,  347, 
348. 

Embudo,  X.  Mex.,  Rio  Grande  at, 
64-67. 

England,  sewage  irrigation  in,  278. 

Erosion  and  sedimentation  in  ca- 
nals, 141-148. 

Essex  Company,  water-powers  of, 
263. 

Europe,  forests  of,  15. 

Europe,  stream-pollution  in,  277. 

Evolution  of  water  control,  112. 

Evolution  of  water  rights,  333. 

Farm,  arrangement  under  irriga- 
tion, 220-224. 

Fencing  of  public  lands  illegal,  48. 

Fertilizing  value  of  muddy  waters, 
148. 

Floats,  for  measuring  velocity  of 
water,  86-89. 

Flooding  for  irrigation,  199-202. 

Flooding  in  checks,  185-193. 

Floods  held  in  reservoirs,  149-178. 

Florence,  Ariz.,  irrigation  near,  308. 

Flowing  wells,  246-253. 

Fluctuations  in  water  supply  in 
semiarid  states,  364-373. 

Fluctuations,  periodic,  of  rivers,  62- 

71- 

Flume  for  measuring  miner's  inches, 
125. 


4io 


INDEX. 


Flume,  measurements  of  flow  in 
95.  96. 

Flumes,  106. 

Flumes  and  wooden  pipes,  134-138 

Flumes,  for  farm  use,  184. 

Foote,  A.  D.,  measuring  box,  126, 
127. 

Foreign  countries  compared  in 
area,  301-303. 

Forest,  area  of,  by  states,  55. 

Forest  protection  and  sheep  graz- 
ing, 38. 

Forest  reservations,  7. 

Forest  reservations,  map  of,  34. 

Forestry  Bureau,  work  of,  35. 

Forests  and  woodlands,  map  of,  32. 

Forests,  extent  of,  29. 

Forests     influence    water    supply, 

393.  394- 

Forests  of  arid  region,  27-36. 
Fort  Bidwell,  Cal.,  rainfall  at,  18. 
Fort  Ellis,  Mont.,  rainfall  at,  18. 
Fort  Stanton,  N.  Mex.,  rainfall  at, 

18. 
Fort    Wingate,    N.   Mex.,   annual 

rainfall  at,  22. 
Foundations  for  dams,  155. 
Francis,  James   B.,  weir  formula, 

131- 
Fresno,    California,    subirrigation, 

211. 

Fresno  Canal,  Cal.,  326. 
Fruit  industry  in  California,  328. 
Fruit  trees,  amount  of  water  for, 

217. 
Furrow  irrigation,  193-199. 

Gage  Canal,  Cal.,  327. 
Gage  Canal,  water  used  by,  218. 
Gallatin  Valley,  Mont..  340. 
Gallon,  defined,  83. 
Galvanized  iron  pipe  for  subirriga- 
tion, 212. 

Garden  irrigation,  384. 
Garden,  Kan.,  irrigation  near,  372. 
Gasolene  for  pumping,  270,  271. 


Genessee  River.  N.Y.,  weir  on,  98. 

Geological  Survey,  hydrographic 
work  of,  80. 

Geological  Survey,  mapping  forest 
reserves,  35. 

Georgia,  irrigation  in,  391. 

Georgia,  negative  artesian  wells  in, 
247. 

Georgia,  reference  to,  316. 

Germany,  comparison  of  area  of, 
301.  3°3- 

Giant  used  in  hydraulic  work,  170. 

Gila  River,  Ariz.,  306-311. 

Gila  River,  Ariz  ,  fluctuations  of,  63. 

Gila  River  Indian  reservation,  irri- 
gation of,  308. 

Glacial  lakes  for  reservoirs,  149. 

Glauber's  salt,  282. 

Government  should  construct  res- 
ervoirs, 394. 

Grade  of  canals,  141-148. 

Grain,  irrigation  of,  195,  196. 

Grand  Junction,  Col.,  329. 

Grand  River,  Col.,  331. 

Grazing  land,  area  of,  by  states,  55. 

Grazing  land,  extent  of,  29. 

Grazing  lands,  36-49. 

Grazing  lands,  map  of,  39. 

Grazing,  large  part  of  land  valuable 
only  for,  82. 

Grazing,  the  principal  industry  of 
the  arid  regions,  29. 

Great  American  Desert,  365. 

Great  Basin,  Nev.,  342. 

Great  Interior  Basin,  location  of,  59. 

Great  Plains,  Artesian  conditions, 

373-370- 

Great  Plains,  artesian  wells  of,  248. 
Great  Plains,  earth  dams  on,  166. 
Great  Plains,  surveys   adapted   to, 

10. 

Great  Plains,  underflow  of,  230-232. 
Grrnt  Salt  Lake,  deserts  near,  27. 
Great  Salt  Lake,  Utah,  356-358. 
<  irc.it  Salt  Lake,  Utah,  deserts  near, 

56. 


INDEX. 


411 


Great  Salt  Lake,  Utah,  drainage  to, 

59- 

Greeley,  Col.,  329. 
Green  River,  Col.,  331. 
Green  River,  Utah,  357. 
Green  River,  Wyo.,  363. 
Ground  sluicing,  170-173. 
Ground  water,  rise  of,  222. 

Hamey  Valley,  Or.,  353. 

Harrisburg,  Pa.,  Susquehanna 
River  at,  67,  68. 

Headgates,  115-119. 

Hemet  Dam,  317. 

High  Plains,  climate  of,  17. 

Hitchcock,  Ethan  Allen,  report  by, 
396-405. 

Home-making,  importance  of,  i. 

Homestead  law,  purpose  of,  7. 

Humboldt  River,  Nev.,  345. 

Humboldt  sink,  desert  near,  56. 

Humid  regions,  irrigation  in,  383- 
392. 

Humid  regions,  map  of,  14. 

Hydrant  irrigation,  207-212. 

Hydraulic  dams,  170-173. 

Hydraulic  works  for  cleaning  res- 
ervoirs, 158,  159. 

Hydrography,  Division  of,  80. 

Idaho,  irrigation  in,  333-338. 
Illinois,  proportion   of  land   culti- 
vated, 52. 
Improved  land,  area  of,  by  states, 

55- 

Impulse  wheels  for  pumping,  259, 
260. 

India,  pumping  in,  254. 

Indian  irrigation  methods,  182. 

Indian  reservations,  7. 

Indian  reservations,  location  of, 
33-  34- 

Industrial  depression,  opportunities 
during,  8. 

Integration,  method  of  measure- 
ment, 96. 


Interior,  Secretary  of,  396-405. 

Iowa,  proportion  of  land  cultivated, 
52- 

Ireland,  comparison  of  area  of,  302. 

Irrigable  lands,  map  of,  54. 

Irrigating  season,  water  used  dur- 
ing, 214. 

Irrigation  district  law  of  California, 

3I9r 

Irrigation,  importance  to  citizen,  2. 
Irrigation,  importance  to  farmer,  2. 
Irrigation  methods,  179-224. 
Irving,  W.,  estimates  of  water  used, 

218. 

Italian  gardeners,  391. 
Italian  module,  122. 
Italy,  comparison  of  area  of,  301- 

303- 

James  River  Valley,  So.  Dak.,  374. 
James  River  Valley,  So.  Dak.,  arte- 
sian wells  of,  248-252. 
Johnson,  Willard  D.,  data  from,  52. 
Jordan  River,  Utah,  356. 
Jumbo  windmills,  266. 

Kansas,  irrigation  in,  379-380. 
Kansas  subirrigation  system,  209. 
Kansas,  waves   of   settlement    in, 

367. 

Kansas,  western,  dry  farming  in, 49. 
Kansas,  western,  in  subhumid  belt, 

13- 

Kern  River,  Cal.,  319,  320. 
King,  F.  H.,  experiments  by,  213. 
King  River,  Cal.,  326. 

La  Grange,  Cal.,  dam,  159-161. 
Lake  McMillan,  N.  Mex.,  350. 
Lake  Tahoe,  Nev.,  345. 
Land    Office,   guarding  forest    re- 
serves, 35. 

Land  office  lines  on  map,  153. 
Lateral  ditches,  use  of,  200,  222. 
Lava  plains  of  Or.,  351-353. 
Law  of  irrigation,  286-298. 


412 


INDEX. 


Lawrence,  Kan.,  rainfall  at,  20-21. 

Lawrence,  Mass.,  water-power  at, 
262. 

Least  amount  of  water  used,  216. 

Levees  for  irrigating,  185-193. 

Levelling  a  ditch  line,  105,  106. 

Levelling  device,  106. 

Levelling  the  ground,  192. 

Lewiston,  Id.,  338. 

Licenses  for  grazing,  44. 

Lining  of  canals,  139-141. 

Litigation  over  water  rights,  287. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  314. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  charge  for  water 
near,  327. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  method  of  irriga- 
tion near,  204. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  pumping  at,  264. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  wells  near,  322. 

Los  Angeles  River,  Cal.,  underflow 
of,  235-241. 

Los  Angeles  River,  Cal.,  325. 

Louisiana,  irrigation  in,  391. 

Lowell,  Mass.,  experiments  at,  131. 

Lowell,  Mass.,  water-power  at,  262. 

Lower  Otay  Dam,  Cal.,  164. 

Madison,  Wis.,  experiments  at,  213. 
Majordomo,     or     superintendent, 

349- 

Malarial  conditions,  281. 
Malheur  River,  Or.,  352,  353. 
Maricopa  Indians,  water  for,  308. 
Market  for  goods  in  West,  2. 
Markets  for  products,  406. 
Maryland,  population  of,  316. 
Masonry  dams,  159-162. 
Massachusetts,  proportion  of  land 

cultivated,  52. 
Meade  artesian  wells,  379. 
Measuring  devices  or  modules,  120- 

134- 

Mediterranean  countries,  arid,  15. 

Merced  River,  Cal.,  canal  from,  139. 

Merrimac  River,  Mass.,  water- 
power  on,  262,  263. 


Meters,  for  measuring  velocity  of 

water,  89-97. 

Methods  of  irrigation,  179-224. 
Mexico,  arid  regions  in,  14. 
Mexican   irrigation   methods,   182, 

187,  189. 
Mexican  methods  in  New  Mexico, 

346-349. 

Milk  River,  Mont.,  340. 
Miner's  inch  defined,  122-130. 
Miner's  inch  irrigates  several  acres, 

217. 
Minneapolis,       Minnesota,       Mr. 

Roosevelt  at,  403. 
Mississippi   River,   large  drainage 

area,  57. 
Mississippi  River,  upper,  run-off  of, 

58. 

Mississippi  Valley,  irrigation  in, 
Mississippi  Valley,  level   land    in, 

10. 
Mississippi  Valley,  land   laws  de- 

sig"ned  for,  9. 

Mississippi  Valley,  plains  of,  17. 
Missouri  River  in  Montana,  339- 

34°- 
Missouri  River  in  North  Dakota, 

371- 

Missouri  River,  run-off  of,  58. 
Modesto  Canal,  Cal.,  160,  161. 
Modules,  for  measuring  water,  120- 

134- 

Mohave  Desert,  313. 
Montana,  irrigation  in,  338-341. 
Montana,  miner's  inch  in,  129. 
Montana,  use  of  water  in,  214. 
Morena  Dam,  Cal.,  164. 
Mormons  in  Idaho,  335. 
Mormons  in  Utah,  354-358. 
Mortgages,    speculation     in     367- 

369. 

Mot,  pumping  water  by,  256. 
Moxee  Valley,  Wash.,  360. 
Moxee  Valley,  Wash.,  artesian  wells 

in,  252. 
Muddy  waters  in  canals,  141-148. 


INDEX. 


413 


Xt-braska,  irrigation  in,  377-379. 

Nebraska,  western,  in  subhumid 
belt,  13. 

Nevada,  irrigation  in,  341-346. 

Nevada,  lakes  of,  59. 

Nevada,  proportion  of  land  culti- 
vated, 52. 

New  England,  irrigation  in,  391. 

New  England,  rivers  of,  69. 

New  Jersey,  irrigation  in,  391. 

New  Mexico,  irrigation  methods 
in,  189. 

New  Mexico,  irrigation  in,  346-350. 

New  York,  irrigation  near,  391. 

Night  irrigation,  220. 

Nitrifying  organisms,  181. 

North  Dakota,  irrigation  in,  376. 

North   Dakota,   in  subhumid  belt, 

13- 

Northern  Pacific  land  grant,  7. 
Northern  Pacific  railway  hydraulic 

nils,  173. 

Ogden  River,  Utah,  356. 

Ogden  Valley,  Utah,  return  waters 

in.  227,  228. 

Ohio  River,  run-off",  58,  59. 
Ohio  valley,  level  lands  of,  10. 
Oklahoma,  irrigation  in,  380. 
Oklahoma,  in  subhumid  belt,  13. 
Ontario,  Cal.,  charge  for  water  at, 

327- 

Oranges  in  California,  328. 
Orchard  irrigation,  321. 
Orchards  and  vineyards,  irrigation 

of,  202-206. 

Oregon,  dry  farming  in,  49. 
Oregon,  irrigation  in,  350-353. 
Oregon  wagon-road  grants,  7. 
Orient,  trade  with,  406. 
Otay  Dam,  317. 
Otay  Dam,  Cal.,  164. 
Outlet  from  flume,  203. 
Outlets  for  dams,  167. 
Outlets   for   small    reservoirs,    169, 

170. 


Pacific,  winds  from,  16. 

Pacoima  Wash,  Cal.,  underflow  of 

238. 

Palouse  River,  Wash.,  360. 
Panhandle  of  Texas,  380. 
Papago    Indians,   water    economy 

by.  45- 

Papago  Indians,  water  for,  308. 
Paris,  sewage  irrigation,  277. 
Pataha  River.  Wash.,  360. 
Payette  River,  Id.,  324-328. 
Pecos  River,  N.  Mex.,  347-350. 
Pennsylvania,  reference  to,  316. 
Percolation  through  dams,  166. 
Periodic  fluctuations  of  rivers,  62- 

7i- 

Permits  for  grazing,  48. 

Petroleum  for  pumping,  324. 

Philippine  Islands,  comparison  of 
area  of,  301-303. 

Phoenix,  Ariz.,  iirigation  near,  304, 
307,  310- 

Phoenix,  Ariz.,  sewage  irrigation, 
278. 

Pima  Indians,  water  for,  308. 

Pioneer  conditions,  108. 

Pioneer  conditions  of  settlement,  9. 

Pioneers,  neglected  best  opportu- 
nities, 75. 

Pipe  irrigation,  207-212. 

Placer  mining,  170-173. 

Plainfield,  N.  J.,  irrigation,  278. 

Plane  of  saturation,  225. 

Plants,  water  required  by,  4,  180. 

Platte  River,  Neb.,  377-379. 

Pole  floats,  89. 

Pool  irrigation,  204. 

Portugal,  population  of,  317. 

Precipitation,  16-27. 

Prescott,  Ariz.,  rainfall  at,  20. 

Priorities,  law  of,  291-293. 

Priorities  to  use  of  stored  waters, 
177. 

Priority  of  right,  109,  113. 

Private  capital  in  irrigation,  398. 

Promontory,  Utah,  rainfall  at,  18. 


4i4 


INDEX. 


Prosperity  follows  reclamation,  2. 
Public  land  states,  extent  of,  28. 
Public  land,  system  of  survey,  9. 
Public  land,  utilized  by  irrigation ,  2. 
Public  lands,  extent  of,  I. 
Public  lands,  location  of,  5. 
Public  lands,  reclamation  of,  i. 
Puddled  core  of  dams,  166. 
Puddling  the  bottoms  of  reservoirs, 

168. 
Pueblo    Indians  in   New   Mexico, 

346. 
Puget  Sound,  excessive  rainfall  of, 

26. 

Pullman,  Wash.,  360. 
Pumping  by  petroleum,  324. 
Pumping  in  humid  states,  389. 
Pumping  water,  254-271. 

Quantity  of  water  used  in  irrigation, 
214. 

Rain-belters,  367. 

Rainfall  increasing  or  diminishing, 

366. 

Rainfall,  map  of  mean  annual,  24. 
Rainfall,  mean  monthly,  18. 
Rainfall,  not  decreasing,  23. 
Rainier  National  Park,  location  of, 

33- 

Raised  ditches,  183. 
Reclamation  of  public  lands,  i. 
Rectangular  weir,  131. 
Redlands,  Cal.,  323,  327. 
Register  for  weir,  134. 
Regulation  of  water  supply,  no. 
Regulators,  115-119. 
Reserved  areas,  extent  of,  6. 
Reservoirs,  149-178. 
Reservoirs    should    be    built    by 

government,  394-405. 
Reservoirs,  units  of  capacity  of,  83. 
Return  waters,  226-229. 
Rice  irrigation,  382,  391. 
Rights  to  water,  286-298. 
Rio  Grande  in  Colorado,  331. 


Rio  Grande  in  New  Mex.,  347-349. 

Rio  Grande  in  Texas,  381. 

Rio  Grande,  international  charac- 
ter of,  80. 

Rio  Grande,  irrigation  along,  187. 

Rio  Grande,  N.  Mex.,  fluctuations 
of,  64-67. 

Rio  Grande,  sediment  from,  144. 

Riparian  rights,  289. 

Riparian  rights  in  East,  388,  389. 

Riverside,  Cal.,  314. 

Riverside,  Cal.,  323,  326. 

Riverside,  Cal.,  water  used  at,  218. 

River  systems  of  United  States,  57. 

Rivers,  not  diminishing  in  volume, 

71- 

Rock-filled  dams,  162-166. 

Rocky  Mountain  foothills,  sub- 
humid  regions  reaching,  13. 

Rocky  Ford,  Col.,  329. 

Rocky  Mountains,  effect  on  cli- 
mate, 17. 

Rocky  Mountain,  waters  diverted 
across,  178. 

Rocky  Mountains,  waters  from,  60. 

Rod  floats,  89. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  President's 
message,  393-396. 

Run-off,  map  of  mean  annual,  25. 

Run-off,  relation  to  rainfall,  27. 

Russell,  Prof.  Israel  C.,  work  by, 
360. 

Sacramento  River,  312. 
Sacramento  River,  location  of,  61. 
Sacramento  Valley,  wheat  fields  of, 

318. 
Salt  Lake,  Utah,  annual  rainfall  at, 

22. 

Salt  River,  Ariz.,  305-311. 
Salton  Desert,  waste  land  of,  27. 
San   Antonio,  Tex.,  irrigation    at, 

381. 

San  Bernardino,  Cal.,  314. 
San  Bernardino,  Cal.,  wells  near, 

322. 


INDEX. 


415 


San  Bernardino  Valley,  Cal.,  water 
supply  of.  325. 

San  Carlos  Dam,  Ariz.,  401. 

San  Carlos,  Ariz.,  proposed  reser- 
voir near,  309. 

Sund  hills  in  Nebraska,  378. 

Sandy  soils  free  from  alkali,  285. 

San  Diego,  Cal.,  314,  316. 

San  Diego,  Cal.,  dams  near,  164. 

San  Diego,  Cal.,  rainfall  at,  18. 

San  Diego  Flume  Company,  Cal., 
219. 

San  Fernando  Valley,  Cal.,  under- 
flow of,  235-241. 

San  Francisco,  Cal.,  rainfall  of,  18. 
20. 

San  Gabriel  River,  Cal.,  325,  326. 

San  Joaquin  River,  312. 

San  Joaquin  River,  location  of, 
61. 

San  Joaquin  Valley,  Cal.,  pumping 
in,  212. 

San  Joaquin  Valley,  wheat  fields 
of,  318. 

San  Joaquin  Valley  canals,  319. 

San  Joaquin  Valley,  Cal.,  artesian 
wells  in,  252. 

San  Luis  Valley,  Col.,  artesian  basin, 
252. 

San  Luis  Valley,  Col.,  331. 

Santa  Ana  Canal,  Cal.,  141. 

Santa  Ana  River,  Cal.,  325. 

Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex.,  rainfall  at,  18, 
22. 

Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex.,  hydraulic  dam, 

173- 

Saturation  of  subsoil,  215. 
Scarcity  of  water,  109. 
Second,  as  unit  of  time,  82. 
Second-foot  of  water  irrigates  100 

acres,  214. 

Second-foot,  denned,  83. 
Sediment  in  reservoirs,  156-159. 
Sedimentation  in  canals,  141-148. 
Seepage,  72-79. 
Seepage,  rate  of,  76. 


Seepage  in  East,  388. 
Seepage  waters,  226-229. 
Selection  of  land,  denned,  9. 
Semiarid   region,    states    of,    364- 

382. 

Semiarid  regions,  map  of,  14. 
Sewage  irrigation,  275-281. 
Shadoofs,  pumping  by,  255. 
Sheep  causing  silt,  148. 
Sheep  destroying  the  grazing  lands, 

43- 

Sheep  grazing,  36-49. 
Sheridan,  Wyo.,  362. 
Shoshone  Falls,  Id.,  336. 
Side-hill  irrigation,  204,  205. 
Sierra  Nevada,  313. 
Sierra  Nevada,  plains  east  of,  17. 
Sierra  Nevada,  rivers  from,  317. 
Silt,  accumulation  of,  46. 
Silt  in  canals,  141-148. 
Silt  in  reservoirs,  156-159. 
Silvies  River,  Or.,  352. 
Siphons,  136-138. 
Sky  Line  ditch,  Col.,  178. 
Small  farms  in  California,  323. 
Small  farms  of  Utah,  274. 
Snake  River,  Id.,  324-328. 
Snake  River,  Wash.,  360. 
Sod  covering  for  reservoir  banks, 

170. 

Sodium  compounds  in  alkali,  282. 
Solomonville,  Ariz.,  307. 
Sorghum  in  dry  regions,  369. 
South  Carolina,  reference  to,  316. 
South    Dakota,   artesian  wells   of, 

248-251. 
South   Dakota,  irrigation  in,  376, 

377- 

South  Dakota,  in  subhumid  belt,  13. 

Southern  Pacific  Railroad  in  Ne- 
vada, 344. 

South  Platte  River,  Col.,  330-332. 

Spain,  comparison  of  area,  301-303, 

315.  3l6- 

Spain,  map  of,  315.  316. 
State  engineer,  duties  of,  297. 


416 


INDEX. 


State  engineers,  duties  of,  HI. 

St.  Anthony,  Id.,  subirrigation  at, 

211. 

Steam-power  for  pumping,  270,  271. 
Steel  core  dams,  164. 
St.  Lawrence,  drainage  of,  57. 
St.  Mary  River,  Mont.,  diversion  of, 

340. 

Storage  of  floods,  394. 
Stored  waters,  173-178. 
Stream  measurement,  importance 

of,  79-72. 
Stream  measurements,  methods  of, 

82-101. 

Subhumid  or  semiarid  defined,  364. 
Subirrigation,  207-212. 
Submerged  dam,  234. 
Submerged  float,  88. 
Subsurface  irrigation,  207-212. 
Sunnyside  Canal,  Wash.,  359. 
Surface  waters,  57-101. 
Survey,  system  for,  9. 
Suspended     car     for     measuring 

river,  93-95. 

Susquehanna   River,   Pa.,  fluctua- 
tions of,  67,  68. 
Sweetwater  Dam,  317. 
Sweetwater  River,  Wyo.,  362-363. 
Sweetwater  system,  Cal.,  219. 
Sweetwater  system,    Cal.    duty   of 

water,  328. 
Switzerland,  comparison  of  area  of, 

302. 

Tag  wire,  93,  94. 

Tanks  of  earth,  166-170. 

Tappoons,  197,  198. 

Tehachapi  Pass,  317. 

Tehachapi  Pass,  313. 

Tejunga  Wash,  Cal.,  underflow  of, 

238. 

Texas,  extent  of,  312. 
Texas,  irrigation  in,  380-382 
Texas,  "  pan  handle,"  in  subhumid 

belt,  13. 
Texas,  rice  irrigation,  391. 


Tile  used  for  irrigation,  210. 

Timber  dams,  165. 

Titles  to  water,  importance  of,  12. 

Tonto  Basin,  307. 

Topographic  maps  of  forest  re- 
serves, 35. 

Township,  defined,  9. 

Trapezoidal  weir,  132-134. 

Trees,  amount  of  water  for,  217. 

Truckee  River,  Nev.,  343-345. 

Tucson,  Ariz.,  overgrazing  near, 
44,  46. 

Tunnels,  138-139. 

Tunnels  for  obtaining  water,  322. 

Tuolumne  River,  La  Grange  dam 
on,  159-161. 

Turbim  windmills,  266. 

Turlock  Canal,  Cal.,  hydraulic  cut 
on,  173. 

Turlock  Canal,  Cal.,  160,  161. 

Turlock  Canal,  Cal.,  tunnel  on,  139. 

Twin  Falls,  Id.,  336,  337. 

Typhoid,  from  well  water,  243. 

Underflow,  229-241. 

Underflow  dam,  234. 

Underflow  waters  cut  by  tunnels, 
322. 

Underground  waters,  225-253. 

Underground  waters  to  be  de- 
veloped, 402. 

Union  Pacific  land  grant,  7. 

Unita  Mountains,  waters  from,  60. 

United  States,  map  of  arid  regions 
of,  14. 

Units  of  measurement,  83,  84. 

Utah,  irrigation  in,  353-358. 

Utah  Lake,  Utah,  356-358. 

Utah,  priorities  of  right  in,  293. 

Utah,  proportion  of  land  cultivated, 

52. 
Utah,  small  farms  of,  274. 

Velocity  in  canals,  141-148. 
Velocity,  methods    of    measuring, 
86-97. 


INDEX. 


417 


Verde  River,  Ariz.,  305,  306. 
Vineyard  irrigation,  321. 
Vineyards,  irrigation  of,  202-206. 

Walker  Lake,  deserts  near,  56. 

Walker  River,  Nev.,  343-345. 

Wallawalla  River,  Wash.,  360. 

Wallawalla,  Wash.,  rainfall  at,  18. 

Walnut  Gun  Dam,  Ariz.,  failure  of, 
163. 

Wasatch  Mountains,  Utah,  354. 

Wasatch  Mountains,  waters  from, 
60. 

Washington,  city  of,  water  supply, 
276. 

Washington,  dry  farming  in,  49. 

Washington,  irrigation  in,  358-361. 

Washington,  state  of,  excessive 
rainfall  of,  26. 

Waste  of  water,  216. 

Wasteway  for  dams,  167. 

Watchman  at  canal  head,  117. 

Water  as  a  plant  food,  4,  180,  385. 

Water,  amount  applied  in  irriga- 
tion, 212-220. 

Water  boxes  from  ditches,  184,  186. 

Watering  by  furrows,  193-199. 

Water,  its  importance,  3. 

Watermaster,  107,  114. 

Water  meters,  122. 

Water  power,  data  for,  80. 

Water-power  for  pumping,  258- 
265. 

Water  storage  requirements,  150- 
156. 

Water  supply,  amount  by  states,  55. 

Water  supply  governs  values,  10. 

Water  supply,  importance  to  de- 
velopment, 81. 

Water  table,  raising  of,  215,  225. 

Water,  weight  of,  213. 

Water  wheels  as  meters,  100,  10-1. 

Water-wheel  for  pumping,  258-265. 


Waters  underground,  225-253. 
Weather,  changes  of,  26. 
Weather,  defined,  16. 
Weber  River,  Utah,  356. 
Weeds  in  canals,  146-148. 
Weirs,  97-101. 

Weirs,  for  measurement,  122. 
Weirs,  various  forms  of,  130-134. 
Weiser  River,  Id.,  324-328. 
Well  irrigation,  209. 
Wells  in  California,  321. 
Wells,  ordinary  forms,  241-246. 
Well-sweep,  pumping  by,  257. 
Wheat  in  California,  318. 
Wheat  in  North  Dakota,  376. 
Wheat  in  Utah,  354. 
Wheat  in  Washington,  359. 
Wheat,  raised  by  dry  farming,  49- 

5i- 

Wheatland,  Wyo.,  363. 
Windbreaks  on  the  plains,  370. 
Windmills,  265-270. 
Windmills  on  the  plains,  369-370. 
Windmills    pumping     into    earth 

tanks,  167. 

Wooden  pipes,  134-138. 
Woodland,  area  of,  by  states,  55. 
Woodland,  extent  of,  29. 
Woonsocket,    So.    Dak.,    artesian 

wells  at,  251. 

World,  map  of  arid  regions  of,  15. 
Wyoming,  irrigation  in,  361-363. 
Wyoming  water  laws,  in. 
Wyoming,  water  rights  in,  297. 

Yakima  River,  Wash.,  359-360. 
Yellowstone  National  Park,   loca- 
tion of,  33. 

Yellowstone  River,  Mont.,  339-340 
Yuma,  Ariz.,  rainfall  at,  18. 

Zanja,  defined,  107. 
Zanjero,  107. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 
on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 

*""*" 

551  1974" 

K&Jt9-\m-^ 

fl/Al      1      n       m^T 

JVtt  1  0  1978 

^f^.°ro>Y76e8                  u-iSSggSB^ 

